Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Literature (449-1066)

Old English literature, also referred to as Anglo-Saxon literature, is dated between 449/600 (the invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) and 1100/1200 (the establishment of Norman rule). It is hypothesized that until the sixth century BC, the British Isles were inhabited by Iberians, and from the sixth to seventh centuries BC by Celts. It also represents the language, now known as Old English, that was spoken and written by Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in England.

This period was characterized by foreign invasions and internal struggles, resulting in the mixing of several races, languages, and cultures. Life was mostly centered on ancestral tribes or clans. Initially, people... Continue reading "Anglo-Saxon Literature: History, Culture, and Key Works" »

Features in Modern English: Orthography and Phonology

Orthography

Fixing and Reducing Spelling Variation

• Spelling Reform Debate: Spelling reform in accordance with pronunciation was proposed but not successful due to its radical nature (e.g., John Hart's 'An Orthographie').
• Regularization of Spelling: Regularization based on traditional and etymological grounds proved successful.
• Standardization by 1700: By 1700, English largely became standardized, making texts from that period onward relatively easy for modern readers.
• Reflection of Late 15th-Century Pronunciation: Modern orthography reflects the pronunciation of the late 15th century.
• Changes in Orthographic Conventions: Distinction of graphemes u/v and i/j emerged.
• Etymological Respellings: Scholars

Democracy in the 19th Century

• Democratic movements advocated for the right of ordinary people to participate in politics. Supporters aimed to end the social and economic inequalities created by bourgeois liberalism.
• The petite bourgeoisie rejected the limited male suffrage imposed by the wealthy bourgeois.
• Key principles supported by 19th-century democrats included:
  • Universal manhood suffrage: The belief that all men should have the right to vote.
  • A preference for a republic as the form of government, considering hereditary monarchy incompatible with democracy.

19th Century Political Revolutions

• These revolutions finally brought an end to absolute monarchy in many areas.
• They were based on the principles of liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.

The

What is a Global City?

A global city, also known as a world city, is generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system (e.g., New York). It is a city that has a significant component of transnational elites.

Rome is a globalized (diversely global) city known around the world for its historical, demographic, and cultural trends, such as its image as a center of religious heritage. Rome has been crucial in the development of modern tourism, which is considered one of the side effects of economics.

Stereotypes

A stereotype is to believe unfairly that all people or things with a particular characteristic are the same. Common stereotypes of Rome include:

• The Eternal City (never-lasting)
• Romantic, free, and fun
• City of layers
• Ancient

2. THE FIRST World War

Was fought between 1914 and 1918, by various European countries and their colonies, the USA, Japan, China and some Latin American republics.

2.1. The causes of the war:

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire competed for control of the Balkans. At the same time, Serbia was angry about the expansion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into the area.

• France wanted to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine, which it had lost to the German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War. France and Germany also competed for control of Morocco.

• Great Britain saw the supremacy of each merchant navy threatened when the German Empire, become an economic power

These disputes created a pre-war atmosphere, and the European powers continued

The Soviet Union: From Revolution to Cold War

The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government that had replaced Tsar Nicholas II. This established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Russian SFSR) and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary "Reds" and the counter-revolutionary "Whites." The Red Army entered several territories of the former Russian Empire and helped local communists take power through workers' councils called "soviets", which nominally acted on behalf of workers and peasants. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian,... Continue reading "Soviet Union: From Revolution to Cold War" »

Spanish Industrialization Law of 1939

This document is a firsthand legal text, a law enacted to provide state support for the creation of industries of national interest. Authored by Franco in October 1939, it reflects the post-Civil War priorities of the Spanish state.

Published after the end of the Civil War, the law emerged from the state's recognition of the importance of industries, particularly those with wartime applications. The country's situation was dire, with widespread destruction of infrastructure and reduced agricultural and industrial output. The Northern Campaign highlighted the need for state control over key industries.

The Rationale Behind the Law

The law was driven by the realization that controlling industries, especially... Continue reading "Spanish Industrialization Law of 1939: A Post-War Analysis" »

1. What Were Jefferson’s Beliefs About the Role of Government? He believed in having limited power, but setbacks were in order. He was an Anti-Federalist and a Jeffersonian Republican. He believed in frugality (little spending) and simplicity, which meant he cut back on some things. He reduced the army and the number of government employees. He also wanted to cut back on taxes and succeeded in eliminating the entire national debt. He believed that each state should have its own rights, such as education and road maintenance.

2. In the Election of 1800, What Were the Federalists Afraid Of? Federalists were afraid of revolution and chaos (Adams) because if Jefferson won the election, everything was going to change.

3. In the Election of 1800,