Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Richard Lovelace: "To Althea, from Prison" (1642)

This celebrated poem, “To Althea, from Prison,” was written in 1642 by Richard Lovelace, a prominent Cavalier poet. The year 1642 marked the beginning of the tumultuous English Civil War, providing a critical context for the poem's creation.

The Reign of Charles I and Political Conflict

The political climate was highly volatile. King Charles I, like all the Stuarts, staunchly believed in the Divine Right of Kings, asserting that the monarch’s power was conferred directly by God and therefore could not be disputed. This belief led to serious conflicts with the Parliament, which sought to control the King’s government, particularly regarding taxation.

Charles I attempted to circumvent parliamentary... Continue reading "Richard Lovelace's "To Althea, from Prison": Cavalier Poetry Context" »

Into how many categories the religious sects that originated during the 6th century B.C. can be divided? Ans.

The religious sects of the 6th century B.C. can be divided into two categories:

1. The faiths which were openly against Vedic religion
2. The faiths which did not oppose Vedic religion openly but propagated new principles venerating one or the other old divinity.

What do you mean by “Dharma Chakra Pravartana”? Ans.

Dharma Chakra Pravartana means ‘sitting in motion the wheel of Dharma’. The first religious discourse or sermon delivered by Mahatma Buddha after attaining enlightenment at Mrig dav or Deer Park of Sarnath near Varanasi, is known as ‘Maha chakra Pravartana’

Mention the various incarnations of Vishnu according to Vaishnavism.

Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State

The Gestapo

The Gestapo, under Reinhard Heydrich's command, was the most feared force by ordinary German citizens. Gestapo agents had sweeping powers, including arresting citizens on suspicion and sending them to concentration camps without trial. Fear of the Gestapo led to widespread informing on each other among ordinary Germans.

The Police and Courts

The police and courts also played a role in propping up the Nazi dictatorship. High-ranking Nazis were appointed to top positions in local police forces, reporting directly to Himmler. The police engaged in political snooping in addition to their regular law and order duties, and they were instructed to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents. The Nazis also... Continue reading "Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State and Propaganda Machine" »

Franco’s Dictatorship

1. Franco: Caudillo of Spain

He had all the power. He was Head of State, Head of Government, and the Supreme General of the Armed Forces. There was no division of power in Spain.

2. NO-DO

Noticiarios y documentales (NO-DO) was a state-controlled series of cinema newsreels in Spain (1943-1981). The NO-DO was watched by all citizens at the cinema, and it was full of one-sided (national) propaganda.

3. Sección Femenina

Sección Femenina was the female branch of the Falange, which guided the life of women.

4. Propaganda

Propaganda was strongly used by the National side, and thanks to the one used for the Referendum of 1947 (regarding the law of succession), Franco got power for life. Apart from that, he was given the right to choose... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Dictatorship, Memory, and History" »

International Agreements of the 1920s

France's Treaties (1920)

Countries: Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia.
Goal: To protect France from future German attacks by creating military and friendship treaties with Germany's neighbors.
Outcome: Successful.

Geneva Protocol (1924)

Countries: Britain and France.
Goal: To strengthen the League of Nations' authority in disputes by requiring members to seek League arbitration and accept its decisions. Armed forces could be used against aggressors.
Outcome: Not successful.

Dawes Plan (1924)

Countries: USA, Britain, France, Belgium, Germany.
Goal: To address Germany's economic collapse and inability to pay reparations. The plan extended Germany's reparation payment period, offered American loans... Continue reading "International Agreements of the 1920s: A Path to Peace?" »

Francoist Cortes Dissolution

This law was approved by the Francoist Cortes, although it meant their own dissolution. To convoke elections, it was necessary to put an end to the Francoist Cortes; this law abolished those Cortes.

1977: A Year of Change

In the first six months of 1977, significant changes were made:

• Further amnesty for political prisoners
• Independent trade unions replaced vertical syndicates
• Right to strike was restored
• Legalization of political parties began in February

June 1977 Elections

Elections were convoked in June 1977, after trade unions and the PCE (Communist Party of Spain) were legalized. The UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre) won, and the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) came second. Another feature was the important... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: Reforms and Challenges (1977-1985)" »

CONSTRUCTION OF THE LIBERAL STATE (1833-1874)

The First Carlist War and the Rise of Isabelline Spain

Ferdinand VII's decision to allow female succession through the Pragmatic Sanction sparked conflict with his brother, Carlos Mª Isidro, leading to the First Carlist War (1833-1839). The Carlists, supporters of Carlos, defended absolutism and traditional institutions, while the Isabelline faction, backing Isabella II, embraced liberalism and reform.

Following a series of Carlist defeats, the Isabelline forces, led by General Espartero, emerged victorious. The Vergara Agreement of 1839 officially ended the war, granting amnesty to Carlist soldiers while preserving some regional autonomy (fueros).

The Implantation of the Liberal State (1833-1843)

During... Continue reading "The Rise of the Liberal State in Spain (1833-1874)" »

Phases of the French Revolution

Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)

Once in the Estates General, the Third Estate proposed to change the voting system to one individual vote per member. The king refused, and the bourgeoisie declared themselves the true representatives of the nation. They proclaimed a National Assembly and pledged to draft a constitution. The king eventually agreed to demands, and a National Constituent Assembly was formed to abolish feudalism, approve the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens, and draw up a constitution based on the separation of power and national sovereignty with limited male suffrage (suffrage censitaire). The Legislative Assembly began to govern with the rules of the constitution, forcing the nobility... Continue reading "French Revolution Phases and Napoleon's Rise to Power" »

In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the European Union (EU) faced significant challenges. From its inception in 1918, Yugoslavia had been subject to strong centrifugal tendencies. World War II resistance leader Josip Broz Tito restored Yugoslav unity, largely due to the unifying force of communist ideology. This delicate balance teetered after his death in 1980 and completely collapsed after January 1990.

Breakup of Yugoslavia and Early Conflicts

• In December 1990, Serbs elected Slobodan Milošević, who subsequently seized national assets on behalf of Serbia.
• Slovenia declared independence in December 1990.
• As fighting erupted over disputed territories with mixed populations, the presidents of the six republics failed to revive a loose confederation.

The Rise of Suburban America

War Aftermath: Prosperity and Fear

Economic Recovery Under Roosevelt

• Federal war investments finally brought economic recovery.
• Debt rose from $43 billion to more than $200 billion.
• Conflict between business and labor cooled to cooperate in the war effort.
• Industrial production doubled in 1942 and continued to increase steadily.
• Full employment reached for the first time in the 20th century.

Workers’ income increased by 50%, and corporate profits doubled.

Investment continued to a large extent due to the war (Carroll and Noble, 349).

President Harry S. Truman (1945-1953)

The Cold War Emerges: Nuclear Threat

President Truman declared, “We must constitute ourselves trustees of this new force,” referring to nuclear weapons... Continue reading "Post-War America: Economic Boom and the Dawn of the Cold War" »