Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Franco-Prussian War and Its Aftermath

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) played a pivotal role in escalating tensions in Europe. France's defeat and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine fueled resentment and a desire for revenge. The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership, along with the imposition of heavy reparations on France, further destabilized the region. The proclamation of the Second German Empire in 1871, with King William I as Emperor, marked the rise of a powerful Germany with significant military and industrial potential.

Germany's Foreign Policy Under William II

Emperor William II's dismissal of Otto von Bismarck and his refusal to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia proved detrimental. These actions isolated France... Continue reading "Germany's Role in the Outbreak of World War I" »

The End of the Ancient Regime

Factors of Change

Economic growth and the aspirations of the Third Estate, especially the bourgeoisie, were key factors of change. The bourgeoisie criticized the privileges of the nobles and clergy. Most members of society wanted to end the dominance of the privileged classes and establish a monarchy that considered the interests of the Third Estate.

Social Divisions in the Ancient Regime

Society was divided into three estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate). The main feature of this stratified society was civic inequality.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

Slaves were taken from Africa to the Americas, where they were sold and forced to work in terrible... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and the End of the Ancient Regime" »

Origins of the European Union

Several key forces drove the formation of the European Union:

• Traditional Federalism: Thinkers like Rousseau and Victor Hugo envisioned a united Europe.
• Post-WWII Rebuilding: The devastation of World War II, both in human and economic terms, spurred a desire for cooperation and recovery.
• The Marshall Plan: This U.S. initiative provided significant financial aid to Western Europe, accelerating economic recovery and fostering cooperation.

The Marshall Plan and European Recovery

The Marshall Plan, officially the European Recovery Program, was a U.S. initiative that provided $12 billion in economic assistance to Western Europe after World War II. Its goals included:

• Rebuilding war-torn regions
• Removing trade barriers
• Modernizing

The Post-War Economic Crisis (1918-1923)

Europe faced a severe economic crisis after World War I, characterized by:

• High levels of debt due to loans from the United States
• A shortage of products resulting from the destruction caused by the war

Economic Recovery in the 1920s

The United States and Japan were the first countries to recover from the post-war crisis. The US, with its strengthened economy, provided loans and consumer goods to European countries, aiding their recovery. By the mid-1920s, the global economy experienced a period of growth and prosperity known as the Roaring Twenties.

The Wall Street Crash of 1929

On October 24, 1929, known as "Black Thursday," the US stock market crashed. The economic boom of the Roaring Twenties had created... Continue reading "Economic Crisis and the Rise and Fall of Democracy: 1918-1930s" »

Location and History

Toledo Cathedral is located in the city of Toledo, Spain. Its construction spanned from the 13th to 15th centuries.

Plan and Structure

The cathedral follows a Latin cross plan, with the following key features:

Entrance

• Faces west
• Façade with main gate and two towers
• Three portals (portico)
• Highly decorated tympanum

Nave

• Five naves divided by columns and pillars
• Central nave taller and wider than lateral naves
• Ribbed vaults (bovedas de cruceria)
• Pointed arches

Transept

• Short arm that does not protrude from the plan
• Dome at the crossing
• Altar behind the dome

Apse

• Large apse
• Two deambulatory or girols

Materials and Style

The cathedral is constructed primarily of stone, with stained glass windows and rose windows.

The architectural style is Gothic,... Continue reading "Toledo Cathedral: A Gothic Masterpiece" »

Background

The Bayona's Pact was a document drafted in 1945 by the Basque government and other Basque political forces in exile following the end of World War II. It outlined their commitment to cooperate in restoring democracy to the Basque Country.

Basque Autonomy and the Spanish Civil War

Prior to the Civil War, the Basque Country had sought autonomy, which was granted by the Popular Front government. However, the outbreak of war divided the Basque territories, with Araba and Navarre supporting Franco's uprising while Gipuzkoa and Viscay opposed it.

Despite receiving their statute, Gipuzkoa and Viscay continued fighting until their defeat. Franco subsequently labeled them"traitor province" for their opposition.

Basque Government in Exile

Basque... Continue reading "Bayona's Pact: Basque Resistance to Franco's Regime" »

Chapter Five

3) Captain Nicholls' Concerns

Captain Nicholls was deeply troubled by the war. Unlike many soldiers, he did not believe the conflict would be an easy victory. However, he hoped it would end before Albert could join the army.

5) Captain Nicholls and Stewart's Conversation

On their way to the barracks, Captain Nicholls and Stewart discussed the qualities of their horses.

Chapter Six

1) The Horses' Journey to France

The journey to France was arduous for the horses. They were nervous and fearful of the future and what might befall them during the war.

3) The Guns' Impact on Joey

The sound of the guns kept Joey awake at night.

5) Cavalry Squadron Losses

A quarter of the cavalry squadron was lost that day.

Chapter Seven

2) Trooper Warren's Care for

The Crisis of the Canovas System (1917-1923)

In 1917, Spain suffered a crisis that deeply affected three areas:

• Military: The army demanded that wages be increased and that army rank be determined by seniority, not by merit in battle.
• Politics: An assembly of Catalan parliamentarians demanded decentralization.
• Society: Left-wing political parties and trade unions carried out a general strike on August 13th to protest the rise in prices and overthrow the government.

When the crisis was finally over, the period from 1919-1923 saw Spain experience political decline and form unity governments made up of members from all the different parties. These governments didn't last long.

Domestic and International Issues

Domestically, social unrest increased in... Continue reading "The Crisis of the Spanish Monarchy (1917-1931)" »