Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Democratic Monarchy

The Constitution of 1869 established the monarchy as a form of government, and a king had to be found. The elected king was Amadeus of Savoy, and a democratic conception of the role of the monarchy came to Spain in the late 1870s. Amadeus of Savoy always faced opposition from moderates, Carlists, and the Church, who remained faithful to the Bourbons. Many Democrats and some Republicans instigated insurrections in favor of the Republic. The new king had to face two outbreaks of armed conflict: an insurrection on the island of Cuba and a new Carlist war. Due to a lack of support and problems with the masses, Amadeus abdicated.

The First Republic

The Republic was born with scarce possibilities of success, but was received with...

The Liberal and National Revolutions

The strength of liberalism and nationalism was demonstrated in three great revolutionary waves after 1820, which crumbled the Restoration system configured in the Congress of Vienna.

The Revolutions of 1820

By 1820, a series of uprisings led by liberal activists, especially the military, tried in several countries to eliminate absolutism and seize power through insurrections against the armies of the Holy Alliance.

Only in Greece, where liberal interests joined with a strong patriotic movement, did an insurrection against the Turkish Empire win. In 1822, the Greeks declared their independence, which became effective in 1829 after a cruel war.

Movements were also victorious in the Spanish colonies of continental...

Political Consequences of World War I

Policies

• The traditional dynasties (Habsburg, Romanov) were dethroned.
• Democracy gained ground.
• Universal male suffrage was introduced in most of Europe, and some countries recognized women's suffrage.

Territorial Changes

• Dissolution of the great empires.
• Emergence of new countries: Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia (Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro), Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and Slovakia), and Hungary.

The Rise and Crisis of Democracy

The peace treaties that ended World War I led to the emergence of new states in Europe. Most of them introduced parliamentary governments. At the same time, ideological currents questioning democracy were born. Groups of veterans,...

Features of Fascism and Nazism

Fascism

Fascism was an ideology based on anti-democratic and anti-communist principles. The State was led by a totalitarian, powerful leader, and individual liberties were abolished. The state dominated society, and any opposition was severely repressed. The state also intervened in the economy in order to achieve self-sufficiency. Fascism imposed a fierce nationalism and was expansionist, which required the creation of a colonial empire for Italy. It developed a cult of violence and militarism.

Nazism

Nazism included a cult of the leader, the primacy of the state, the glorification of violence and youth, and racism. Women were expected to devote themselves only to having children and household chores.

Hitler's Rise

Victorian Era

The Victorian era, coinciding with the reign of Queen Victoria I, marked the peak of the UK's territorial expansion and financial consolidation. This period solidified democratic practices in the UK.

Bipartisanship

The British parliamentary model is characterized by its marked bipartisanship, with power alternating between two main parties: the Conservatives, led by figures like Disraeli, and the Whigs or Liberals, with Gladstone as a prominent leader.

Bicameralism

The British parliamentary model introduced bicameralism, dividing Parliament into two representative chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the Commons are elected and hold legislative power. The Lords comprises members of the nobility and individuals...

The Spanish Inquisition and its Impact on Society

The Court of the Inquisition was created in the 18th century, established by papal authority to eliminate witchcraft and superstition. It was introduced in Europe and the Crown of Aragon. The Catholic Monarchs reinforced it when it began to weaken, making it an instrument of ideological control and religious unity.

They took the decision to expel the Jews who did not accept conversion to Catholicism. Jews could not participate in public life and were forced to live only among themselves in Jewish neighborhoods. This affected about 150,000 people in Castile and 30,000 in Aragon. Their properties were confiscated, and many agreed to be baptized to avoid expulsion.

The Catholic Monarchs also wanted...

Referees

Thinkers analyzing the 17th-century crisis proposed a series of measures to solve it by sending petitions to the king to take action. They accused the monarch not as the head, but blamed the weight of foreign trade, foreign competition, expenditure on luxuries, and excessive investment in censuses and rents.

Quartermasters

Officials responsible for administering real property, justice, politics, and the armed forces in the provinces. They were introduced during the War of Succession. The general intendancies were similar to the current provinces.

Workmanship

Workshops, the larger craft, in which some specialization and division of labor were given. This pre-industrial production system had emerged in the late Middle Ages. In Spain, the...

Ferdinand VII's Reign: The Bourbon Restoration (1814-1833)

The Absolutist Restoration Begins (1814)

In 1814, Ferdinand returned to Spain, known popularly as El Deseado (The Desired). A group of deputies from the Cortes of Cádiz, holding absolutist ideology, presented the King with a document requesting the restoration of the absolute monarchy and the repeal of the 1812 Constitution. This pivotal document is historically known as the Manifesto of the Persians.

Repeal of the Constitution and the Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)

On May 4, 1814, Ferdinand ordered the repeal of the Constitution. This was the first major reaction against the emerging liberal revolution. The King annulled the legislative work of the courts and promoted a harsh repression...

Nazari Art and Architecture

The Alhambra Palace

Nazari architecture is characterized by external sobriety contrasting with profusely decorated interiors. Simple materials were used, and a distinctive column style emerged. This new column featured a thin, cylindrical shaft with numerous bases and a capital adorned with wavy bands and intricate stalactite or vegetal decoration.

Arches and Decoration

The most common arch types are pointed and stalactite, with the latter being the most characteristic. Decoration is diverse, including geometric interlacing patterns (loop decoration), vegetal motifs, and epigraphy. Plasterwork typically covers the upper walls, complemented by glazed earthenware or tile baseboards, creating a horror vacui effect.

The

Ancient Middle Eastern country, east of Mesopotamia, on the present territory of Iran.

The Persians were a people attached to the group of Aryans, all nomadic tribes whose original location probably lay in the plains of southern Russia and Ukraine. Roughly between 2000 and 1800 BC, the Aryans began their migration: some moved to the Indian subcontinent, while others directed their steps towards the west through Iran and penetrated into northern Mesopotamia and Syria. Around 1400 BC, a third group of Aryans that would include the Persians moved inland from the northwest of Iran.

The family belonged to the Persian language branch of the Indo-Europeans and settled in Iran, neighboring the Asian plateau of Mesopotamia (Daniel Serebrennik) midway...