Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Constitution of 1845

The Constitution of 1845 expressed conservatism and designed a very conservative, oligarchic model. It gave great power to the King, who controlled one chamber, the Senate, appointed directly by the monarch. It denied national sovereignty and established a state church, with the Catholic religion as the state religion.

Constitution of 1869

The Constitution of 1869 was the most democratic constitution of nineteenth-century Spanish liberalism, resulting from the September Revolution of 1868. It established a constitutional monarchy with full recognition of national sovereignty, concretized in a bicameral system (Congress and Senate) and an extensive bill of rights. It introduced universal male suffrage and freedom of religion....

Nazari Art and Architecture

The Alhambra Palace

Nazari architecture is characterized by external sobriety contrasting with profusely decorated interiors. Simple materials were used, and a distinctive column style emerged. This new column featured a thin, cylindrical shaft with numerous bases and a capital adorned with wavy bands and intricate stalactite or vegetal decoration.

Arches and Decoration

The most common arch types are pointed and stalactite, with the latter being the most characteristic. Decoration is diverse, including geometric interlacing patterns (loop decoration), vegetal motifs, and epigraphy. Plasterwork typically covers the upper walls, complemented by glazed earthenware or tile baseboards, creating a horror vacui effect.

The

The Origins of the Bourgeoisie and Medieval Towns

The fortified town was known as the burgher town, as were its residents. The word originally had a very broad sense. In small towns, most of the burghers were farmers, gardeners, or vintners. Even in major cities, pigs ran through the streets; when a prince was to visit a city, the Council ordered the residents to remove piles of manure from the front of their houses.

Craftsmen and Trade Regulations

In some cities, only the wealthier inhabitants were craftsmen who worked a trade, and the main owners were merchants and burghers. In the countries of the South, any artisan who wanted to manufacture and sell could open a store freely. This was the case in France until the late Middle Ages, but in Germany,...

Ancient Middle Eastern country, east of Mesopotamia, on the present territory of Iran.

The Persians were a people attached to the group of Aryans, all nomadic tribes whose original location probably lay in the plains of southern Russia and Ukraine. Roughly between 2000 and 1800 BC, the Aryans began their migration: some moved to the Indian subcontinent, while others directed their steps towards the west through Iran and penetrated into northern Mesopotamia and Syria. Around 1400 BC, a third group of Aryans that would include the Persians moved inland from the northwest of Iran.

The family belonged to the Persian language branch of the Indo-Europeans and settled in Iran, neighboring the Asian plateau of Mesopotamia (Daniel Serebrennik) midway...

La Gran Colombia

Before the birth of Venezuela as a republic, it's important to understand that it previously belonged to the Republic of Gran Colombia. There was a president and vice president for Gran Colombia. The territory was divided into the departments of Cundinamarca, Venezuela, and Quito. The capital was Bogotá. The president was Simón Bolívar, the Vice President was Francisco de Paula Santander, and José Antonio Páez was the head of the military department of Venezuela.

La Cosiata

La Cosiata was a departmental opposition that emerged in 1821. Simón Bolívar and José Antonio Páez initiated it with the specific purpose of separating Venezuela from Gran Colombia.

Bolívar's Attempts at Settlement: 1826-1827

Signs of an impending civil...

The Cuban Revolution

In the mid-twentieth century, Cuba was ruled by Fulgencio Batista, who was supported by the U.S. Batista tried to diversify the Cuban economy, which was based on the production and exportation of sugar, with the construction of public works and tourism development. The corruption of the scheme produced a movement of opposition led by Fidel Castro. Castro and his followers launched a guerrilla war against Batista. In 1959, Batista fled, and Castro and his troops entered Havana.

Castro's Domestic Policy

Castro's domestic policy was based on the imposition of a communist state modeled on the USSR.

Economy

In the economy, measures were taken such as the collectivization of land and the nationalization of banks. Cuba's economy became...

The Roaring Twenties

After World War I, the United States and Europe experienced economic growth. New York became the world's financial center. From 1923, increased production reduced unemployment and improved living standards. However, this period of expansion ended abruptly in 1929.

The 1929 Crash

The U.S. economy faced excessive credit dependence. Companies and consumers were encouraged to take loans, fueling production and stock market investments. The initial stock market downturns caused panic among investors, culminating in Black Thursday on October 24, 1929. The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) collapsed, preventing shareholders from repaying loans and triggering a series of bank failures. Many people were financially ruined. The United...

The Crisis of Liberalism (1898-1931)

The Crisis of '98

In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana. The defeat signified the loss of Spain's last colonies, a disaster that caused frustration among the Spanish political class and pessimism among intellectuals. This gave rise to Regenerationism, advocated by Joaquín Costa, who proposed reforms to modernize the country, overcome backwardness, and eliminate caciquismo (political bossism).

The Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)

In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. The Constitution of 1876 remained in effect, maintaining the system of alternating governments. The Conservative Party, led by Maura after Cánovas, and the...

The Russian Revolution and the Origin of the Soviet Union

1. Tsarist Russia

1.1 Political, Social, and Economic Structure of Russia

Political Structure

In Russia, political power was held by the tsars, who ruled in an authoritarian and despotic manner. This regime did not allow for public liberties; political protests were harshly repressed, and those who favored new ideas were imprisoned, deported to Siberia, or even executed.

The police and repressive regime led to the emergence of clandestine movements of protest and rebellion. One of these, known as the Intelligentsia, was promoted by a minority of Russian intellectuals who denounced the political, social, and economic backwardness of Russia.

Another dissident movement was Nihilism, which advocated...