Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Colonial War and Crisis of 1898: The War of Cuba

The war in Cuba is at the heart of the actions of Canovas' Conservative government, until his assassination at the hands of the Italian anarchist Angiolillo. When the new Cuban insurrection began, Spain found itself isolated due to the political alliances designed by German Chancellor Bismarck. Because of this lack of international support, the Alfonsino regime could barely sustain the confrontation, first indirect and later direct, with the United States.

Independence Movement

The second war was inspired by Cuban independence advocate Jose Marti. The movement's social base was composed of the peasantry, the native bourgeoisie, and the popular classes. The Cuban Revolutionary Party boosted the independence...

Democratic Monarchy

The Constitution of 1869 established the monarchy as a form of government, and a king had to be found. The elected king was Amadeus of Savoy, and a democratic conception of the role of the monarchy came to Spain in the late 1870s. Amadeus of Savoy always faced opposition from moderates, Carlists, and the Church, who remained faithful to the Bourbons. Many Democrats and some Republicans instigated insurrections in favor of the Republic. The new king had to face two outbreaks of armed conflict: an insurrection on the island of Cuba and a new Carlist war. Due to a lack of support and problems with the masses, Amadeus abdicated.

The First Republic

The Republic was born with scarce possibilities of success, but was received with...

The Liberal and National Revolutions

The strength of liberalism and nationalism was demonstrated in three great revolutionary waves after 1820, which crumbled the Restoration system configured in the Congress of Vienna.

The Revolutions of 1820

By 1820, a series of uprisings led by liberal activists, especially the military, tried in several countries to eliminate absolutism and seize power through insurrections against the armies of the Holy Alliance.

Only in Greece, where liberal interests joined with a strong patriotic movement, did an insurrection against the Turkish Empire win. In 1822, the Greeks declared their independence, which became effective in 1829 after a cruel war.

Movements were also victorious in the Spanish colonies of continental...

Political Consequences of World War I

Policies

• The traditional dynasties (Habsburg, Romanov) were dethroned.
• Democracy gained ground.
• Universal male suffrage was introduced in most of Europe, and some countries recognized women's suffrage.

Territorial Changes

• Dissolution of the great empires.
• Emergence of new countries: Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia (Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro), Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and Slovakia), and Hungary.

The Rise and Crisis of Democracy

The peace treaties that ended World War I led to the emergence of new states in Europe. Most of them introduced parliamentary governments. At the same time, ideological currents questioning democracy were born. Groups of veterans,...

Features of Fascism and Nazism

Fascism

Fascism was an ideology based on anti-democratic and anti-communist principles. The State was led by a totalitarian, powerful leader, and individual liberties were abolished. The state dominated society, and any opposition was severely repressed. The state also intervened in the economy in order to achieve self-sufficiency. Fascism imposed a fierce nationalism and was expansionist, which required the creation of a colonial empire for Italy. It developed a cult of violence and militarism.

Nazism

Nazism included a cult of the leader, the primacy of the state, the glorification of violence and youth, and racism. Women were expected to devote themselves only to having children and household chores.

Hitler's Rise

Victorian Era

The Victorian era, coinciding with the reign of Queen Victoria I, marked the peak of the UK's territorial expansion and financial consolidation. This period solidified democratic practices in the UK.

Bipartisanship

The British parliamentary model is characterized by its marked bipartisanship, with power alternating between two main parties: the Conservatives, led by figures like Disraeli, and the Whigs or Liberals, with Gladstone as a prominent leader.

Bicameralism

The British parliamentary model introduced bicameralism, dividing Parliament into two representative chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the Commons are elected and hold legislative power. The Lords comprises members of the nobility and individuals...

The Spanish Inquisition and its Impact on Society

The Court of the Inquisition was created in the 18th century, established by papal authority to eliminate witchcraft and superstition. It was introduced in Europe and the Crown of Aragon. The Catholic Monarchs reinforced it when it began to weaken, making it an instrument of ideological control and religious unity.

They took the decision to expel the Jews who did not accept conversion to Catholicism. Jews could not participate in public life and were forced to live only among themselves in Jewish neighborhoods. This affected about 150,000 people in Castile and 30,000 in Aragon. Their properties were confiscated, and many agreed to be baptized to avoid expulsion.

The Catholic Monarchs also wanted...

Referees

Thinkers analyzing the 17th-century crisis proposed a series of measures to solve it by sending petitions to the king to take action. They accused the monarch not as the head, but blamed the weight of foreign trade, foreign competition, expenditure on luxuries, and excessive investment in censuses and rents.

Quartermasters

Officials responsible for administering real property, justice, politics, and the armed forces in the provinces. They were introduced during the War of Succession. The general intendancies were similar to the current provinces.

Workmanship

Workshops, the larger craft, in which some specialization and division of labor were given. This pre-industrial production system had emerged in the late Middle Ages. In Spain, the...

Ferdinand VII's Reign: The Bourbon Restoration (1814-1833)

The Absolutist Restoration Begins (1814)

In 1814, Ferdinand returned to Spain, known popularly as El Deseado (The Desired). A group of deputies from the Cortes of Cádiz, holding absolutist ideology, presented the King with a document requesting the restoration of the absolute monarchy and the repeal of the 1812 Constitution. This pivotal document is historically known as the Manifesto of the Persians.

Repeal of the Constitution and the Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)

On May 4, 1814, Ferdinand ordered the repeal of the Constitution. This was the first major reaction against the emerging liberal revolution. The King annulled the legislative work of the courts and promoted a harsh repression...

Germany's Division After World War II

In protest, the Soviets closed the entrances to Berlin, except by air, a means by which the U.S. supplied the population for eleven months. That operation swayed much of the population in favor of the Western model. On May 23, a Parliamentary Council endorsed the Bonn Basic Law, following the authorization of the Allies. Thus, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was born. On October 7, a provisional People's House declared the birth of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The RFA would be organized as a parliamentary democracy. The Basic Law combined the information marked by the victorious powers, the recent experience of the Weimar Republic and Nazism, and divided the territory into two parts.

The German