Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Regency of María Cristina (1833-1840)

Isabella II became Queen at only three years old. Consequently, her mother, María Cristina, became regent. The first government was very conservative, but the Carlist Wars (1833-1840) forced the regent to embrace liberalism. Initially, Maria Cristina supported moderate liberals, who implemented minor reforms.

Maria Cristina appointed Juan Álvarez Mendizabal as president. He:

• Abolished the Ancient Regime
• Implemented fiscal reforms
• Dissolved manorialism
• Initiated a disentailment of property and confiscation of Church property
• Abolished the Mesta and guilds

These changes triggered military uprisings, popular revolts, and the mutiny of "La Granja" in 1836, along with uprisings by liberals and complaints from... Continue reading "María Cristina & Espartero: Regency in Spain (1833-1843)" »

Understanding the Cortes and Royal Authority

The Cortes were assemblies that participated in royal deliberations, often convened due to the crown's financial needs. Some monarchs ignored or ceased convoking them, leading to absolutism, a system where rulers centralized political power and territorial control.

Forms of Monarchy and Governance

• Authoritarian Monarchy: The initial step toward absolutism; Charles I is a primary example.
• Absolutism: Exemplified by Louis XIV, who centralized all three branches of power.
• Parliamentary Monarchy: Established in 17th-century England, where Parliament limited royal power and held legislative authority.

Historical Justifications of Power

• Catholic Kings: Expanded power across the peninsula to increase their authority.

INDEPENDENCE OF UNITED STATES: Between1756 and 1763, England and United States fought the "Seven Years war", England won, it was necessary to adopt a set of masures that affected the interests of the 13 colonies.

Spain: The Restoration and 19th Century Politics

In the 19th century, Spain experienced similar political processes to the rest of Europe. During the reign of Fernando VII, absolutism was restored. The reign of Fernando VII is divided into three phases:

• The Absolute Phase (1814-1833): He enjoyed the support of the Spanish people. He wanted to return to the Ancien Régime as outlined in the Persian Manifesto; he abolished the Constitution of 1812 and re-established the absolute monarchy.
• The Liberal Phase (1820-1823): A period of political instability and military coups designed to overthrow absolutism.
• The Ominous Decade (1823-1833): In 1823, Fernando VII asked the Holy Alliance for assistance. They sent a French army, the 100,000 Sons of Saint

Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962)

As the Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Commission, Eleanor Roosevelt was the driving force in creating the 1948 charter which will always be her legacy: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Born in New York City, Eleanor married rising politician Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1905 and became fully immersed in public service. By the time they arrived in the White House in 1933 as President and First Lady, she was already deeply involved in human rights and social justice issues. Continuing her work on behalf of all people, she advocated equal rights for women, African Americans, and Depression-era workers, bringing inspiration and attention to their causes. Courageously outspoken, she publicly supported... Continue reading "Eleanor Roosevelt: Champion of Human Rights and Equality" »

Q.1 American Revolution & Locke's Influence

• John Locke Two Treatises of Government

According to John Locke, the British King did not have the divine right of kings to rule; rather, the ruled were to receive "Life, liberty, and property" in a social contract between the subjects and the King.

If he broke the contract, the ruled had the right to revolt.

• Founding Fathers of American Revolution borrowed from Locke "Life, liberty and pursuit of happiness" and the right to revolt from the British King

Q.2 The Politics of Signing of the US Constitution

• Philadelphia Convention

The formal signing of the Constitution took place on September 17, 1787, almost 109 days after the Philadelphia Convention first met.

Meeting on September 13, 1788, the Articles... Continue reading "The American Revolution, Locke's Influence, and the Politics of the US Constitution" »

Decolonization: The End of Colonial Empires

Decolonization was a process that began in 1945, leading to the dismantlement of colonial empires and the independence of their colonies. It affected over half of the world's surface and 1.5 billion people.

Causes of Decolonization

• The First World War: Colonies became aware of their own importance, and the prestige of colonial powers was reduced.
• Nationalist Movements: After WWI, nationalist ideas fueled by liberalism or Marxism spread through the colonies. They defended the right of the people to govern themselves.
• Emergence of Charismatic Leaders: The elites of many colonized nations studied in European universities. Upon returning, they formed political parties and led independence movements (e.g.,

The Commonwealth Realm

The Commonwealth Realm is a group of 15 sovereign states that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. These states have Queen Elizabeth II as their reigning constitutional monarch and share the same royal line of succession. They are part of the Commonwealth and were formerly part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth of Nations itself is an intergovernmental organization of 53 member states, most of which were territories of the former British Empire.

The British Empire

The British Empire comprised dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom.

Were All Countries in the Commonwealth Former British Colonies?

Commonwealth members are a diverse group. The... Continue reading "The Commonwealth Realm: History, Members, and Origins" »

Argentina

Economic Growth (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

Argentina's economic growth during this period hinged on three factors:

• A booming European market for Argentine products
• An influx of immigrants providing cheap labor
• Significant foreign investment capital

Both rich and poor relied on the export economy, though its benefits were unevenly distributed. Notably, male employers favored women workers, perceiving them as cheaper, more reliable, efficient, and docile than their male counterparts. Despite Argentina's vast land being its greatest asset, ownership was concentrated in the hands of a few.

Society

Argentine society was stratified into three classes:

• Upper Class: Held a monopoly on land ownership and political control.
• Middle Class: Dominated

The Great Depression: Causes and Impact

The period generally referenced as the Great Depression spanned from the stock market crash of 1929, following a decade of economic instability, until the late 1930s. The problems that led to this severe crisis include:

• Overproduction: American industry produced more goods than the population could purchase, leading to factory closures and economic stagnation.
• Falling Consumption: As companies closed down, people lost their jobs, reducing spending and overall demand for goods.
• The Wall Street Crash: Many companies whose shares were sold on the stock market began to fail and crashed in 1929. This triggered a series of protests against the government and the capitalist system that had produced the crisis.

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