Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Absolutism in Europe: The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies

Beginning in the late 15th century, European monarchs began consolidating power, gradually wresting it from traditional sources of authority like the nobility, the Church, and city-states. This trend, known as the rise of authoritarian monarchies, continued throughout the 16th century.

The 17th Century: The Zenith of Absolute Rule

The 17th century witnessed the culmination of this power shift, with monarchs reaching the pinnacle of their authority. This period marked the emergence of absolutism, a political system where the king embodied the ultimate source and wielder of all political power.

Philosophical Justifications for Absolute Power

Several prominent thinkers sought to legitimize... Continue reading "Absolutism in Europe: From Authoritarian Monarchies to the Divine Right of Kings" »

The Crisis of 1973 and Its Consequences

In 1973, an economic crisis began that affected many countries.

Who?

The OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), an organization to which several Arab countries belonged.

Why?

An attempt to pressure Western countries to convince Israel to abandon the Palestinian territories that had been occupied since the Yom Kippur War (1973).

What?

An embargo on the sale of oil. The price of oil tripled in Western countries and affected all sectors of production. The lack of crude oil led to an economic collapse.

Main Consequences:

• The uncontrolled rise of prices (inflation) caused by the increase in the price of oil.
• Reduction of demand.
• Many businesses had to close and unemployment grew.

Measures to Solve the Crisis

Some... Continue reading "The Crisis of 1973 and the Fall of Communism" »

Truman Doctrine

The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, and further developed on July 12, 1948, when he pledged to contain threats in Greece and Turkey. Direct American military force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that is still... Continue reading "Cold War Foreign Policies: Truman Doctrine, Deterrence, and Domino Theory" »

First Period of Francoism (1939-1959)

Political Isolation and Repression

• Politics: During the first years (until 1945), there was a strong relationship with the Axis powers: Italy and Germany.
• After WWII, Spain was isolated. The UN declared Spain a totalitarian regime.
• There was only one political party: Falange Española y de las JONS.
• The era was marked by strong repression.
• Opposition remained hidden in the mountains, known as the Maquis.

Economic Autarchy and the Black Market

• Economy: The system of Autarchy meant Spain was isolated economically, which meant that it could not export or import any products.
• The primary sector was the most important. Except for Catalonia and the Basque Country, other regions earned their living through agriculture,

Cuba suffered from its dependency on the U.S. and the reduced demand for sugar. In 1959, it became the scene of the most successful social revolution in Latin America.

Foundations of Cuban Independence

Key Figures and Early Resistance

José Martí was the leader and founder of El Partido Revolucionario Cubano (The Cuban Revolutionary Party). Afro-Cubans constituted the majority of the soldiers, known as the "Mambises". Women played an important role because they provided food and information, which led to the demand for women's rights.

Spanish Repression and Growing Unrest

General Valeriano Weyler killed many insurgents, fueling the Cubans' hatred for the Spanish rulers. Americans had many businesses in Cuba and were worried about the war because... Continue reading "Cuba's Revolutionary Path: From Colony to Nation" »

First World War 1914-1918

Reasons why it arose:

• Political tensions (colonization).
• Alliances.
• Industrial Revolution.

Alliances:

Germany is a new empire and they start to get a lot of power so Great Britain and France they were allies (Entente cordiale 1904)

• Germany + Italy + Austria + Hungary.
• Great Britain + France.

Great Britain and France they were allied (E.C. 1904) because Germany was taking away their power.

Russia joined Great Britain and France in 1914 and the Triple Entente emerged.

• Great Britain + France + Russia → Triple Entente 1914

Italy and Austria got along badly.

Italy wanted to invade Austria and Hungary so France tells them to ally with them and that if they won Austria and Hungary they would be for Italy, and Italy they accepted that.... Continue reading "Causes and Alliances of World War 1" »

The court sided With Zenger and determined that the press has a Right and responsability to keep the public informed of the truth. Freedom of The press gives journalists the right to publish the truth without restriction Or penalty. Libe lis the publishing of statements that damage a person´s Reputation. Benjamin Franklin was the founder Of the newspaper, Pennsylvania Gazette. Inventor of Stove, Street lamps, Lighting, rod and bifocals. Co-founder of first public hospital, library, fire Department, liberal arts academy. Albany Congress Was organized by the British government. British government called a meeting Amongst all the colonial leaders. This meeting would be held in Albany, New York. The British Government Goal was for the Colonies

Key Historical Events: Early 20th Century Transformations

Prelude to Revolution: Early 20th Century Russia

• Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): A significant defeat for Russia, exposing weaknesses in the Tsarist regime.
• Bloody Sunday (1905): Imperial guards opened fire on peaceful demonstrators in St. Petersburg, sparking widespread unrest and the 1905 Revolution.

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

The February Revolution (March 1917)

• February 23rd, 1917: Large demonstrations in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) escalated into a general strike and riots in military barracks.
• Tsar Nicholas II Deposed: The unrest led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II.
• Provisional Government Formed: A liberal Provisional Government was established, promising reforms and land distribution.

Political Ideologies

The following ideologies shaped modern political and economic systems:

• Liberalism

  • Private property accepted.
  • The bourgeoisie controls the economy and political power.
  • Economic freedom regulated by the market.
  • Class-based society.
  • Individualism based on guaranteed private property.

• Socialism

  • Parliamentary system with a powerful state.
  • Classless society.
  • Economy led by the state.

• Communism

  • Classless society.
  • Economy and means of production controlled by the state.
  • Transition based on revolution.
  • No private ownership.
  • Proletarians control political power.

• Anarchism

  • Disappearance of the state and political parties.
  • Rejection of all types of authority.
  • No private ownership.
  • No property.
  • Self-managed free associations without obligations.

Colonialism

Modern Age: From the Middle Ages to the Contemporary Age

The Modern Age is the historical period from the end of the Middle Ages until the Contemporary Age; from the discovery of America and the fall of Constantinople until the French Revolution. Sub-periods include:

• 16th Century: The Renaissance
• 17th Century: The Baroque
• 18th Century: Absolutism

Main Changes

• End of the Byzantine Empire: Constantinople was invaded by the Turks.
• Geographical Discoveries: In Africa, America, and Asia.
• Rivalry for Power: Significant competition among European powers.

Crisis of the Feudal System

Feudal kingdoms were substituted by the modern state and authoritarian monarchies. The feudal economy, which had been focused on the possession of land, gave way to the rising influence... Continue reading "Modern Age: Renaissance, Reformation, and Discoveries" »