Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Catholic Monarchs and the Unification of Spain

Background

In the 15th century, the Iberian Peninsula was divided into five kingdoms, with the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon being the largest and most powerful. In 1469, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella, the sister of the Castilian King Henry IV. This union marked the beginning of a new era in Spanish history.

The Catholic Monarchs

Ferdinand and Isabella became known as the Catholic Monarchs. They preserved the autonomy and independence of each kingdom, but they also worked together to strengthen the monarchy and unify Spain.

Ferdinand became king of Aragon in 1479, and Isabella defeated her niece Joanna la Beltraneja in a civil war that lasted five years. After the war,... Continue reading "The Catholic Monarchs and the Age of Exploration" »

World War I was the first global conflict since the Industrial Revolution, and with it came a new generation of weapons. The causes of the First World War are heterogeneous, but their combination led to the start of the Great War in 1914, ending in 1918. Among the causes of the First World War are the following: Militarism, Imperialism, Nationalism, and Alliances. The Treaty of Versailles points to Germany as responsible for the war. Surely it wasn't the only responsible party, but Germany's actions were the ones that led to the war. The truth is that once the war was ending, all the responsibility for its beginning fell on Germany, and this was reflected in writing in Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). This was the first peace... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Was Germany to Blame?" »

Imperialism and its Impact (1870-1914)

Imperialism is the control exercised by certain powerful states over other territories. In the late 19th century, a new, complex type of imperialism took shape on a much larger scale. This new imperialism reached its height between 1870 and 1914 and was dominated by the industrialized countries (colonial empires).

Types of Colonial Administration

• Colony: Territory dominated entirely by the occupying power. There are two types: settler colonies and exploitation colonies.
• Protectorate: Theoretically, the metropole respected the native government.
• Concession: Administration and occupation of a territory within a state for the purpose of trade.

Causes of Imperialism

• Demographic: European demographic growth over the

The Cold War

The Cold War was a period of constant tension between the United States and the USSR that lasted from 1948 to 1989. During these years, each superpower aimed to demonstrate and increase its own power, while at the same time limiting or reducing the influence of the other. However, both the Americans and the Soviets wanted to avoid a direct military confrontation, since this could lead to nuclear war.

The Great Depression

At the end of the 1920s, a series of problems in the United States caused a major economic crisis, known as the Great Depression. This crisis lasted until the end of the 1930s and brought an end to the prosperous, consumer lifestyle of the previous decade.

Causes of the Great Depression

The problems that led to the... Continue reading "The Cold War and Great Depression: A Comparative Analysis" »

From Progressive 2-Years to the Glorious Revolution (1854-1868)

Progressive 2-Years (1854-1856)

Narvaez's power was becoming more and more dictatorial, which provoked discontent and ended in a coup d'etat by General O'Donnell. He published the Manzanares Manifesto and obtained wide popular backing. He created a new political party: the Liberal Union (between moderates and progressives).

Finally, the coup d'etat was successful and Espartero returned and formed a government.

In this time, some measures were adopted such as the Madoz disentitlement, the elaboration of a new progressive constitution (never applied) by the Constituent Courts, and the creation of the Railroad Law for economic modernization.

New political groups appeared:

• Democrats: asked

Walt Whitman

• Born in New York into a laboring family of agriculturists (the working class.)
• His family has nine children and he was the second childegan working at the age of 12 as a printer in Brooklyn and New York City.
• Became a journalist and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle in NY. He was later fired because he supported the antislavery Free Soil faction of the Democratic Party.
• Traveled via the Mississippi River to Louisiana and worked on the Crescent and later returned to NY.
• Saw many Shakespeare plays
• Back in NY he began experimenting with a new style of poetry
• Published his first edition of Leaves of Grass in 1855 with no publisher nor author name.
• The third edition of 1860 included Calamus and Premonition later called Started from Pumanok.

The Indispensable United Nations

Despite its shortcomings, the UN remains crucial for:

• Facilitating dialogue between the US and the world
• Addressing conflicts and promoting development
• Modifying US policies
• Providing a platform for international cooperation
• Addressing global interdependence
• Enhancing planetary interdependence
• Supporting international peace and understanding

Reforming the Security Council

Arguments for restructuring:

• The Security Council's role in UN functioning
• Changing power dynamics with the disintegration of the USSR
• Privileged position of permanent members
• Veto power of permanent members
• Need for representation from developing countries

Threats to Security in the Third and First Worlds

Third World:

• Military conflicts with neighboring states
• Internal

George Washington

Born on February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, Virginia, George Washington served as a general and became the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797.

Battle at Bunker Hill

The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17, 1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War.

The Invasion of Quebec

On December 31, 1775, during the American Revolutionary War (1775-83), Patriot forces under Colonel Benedict Arnold (1741-1801) and General Richard Montgomery (1738-75) attempted to capture the British-occupied city of Quebec and with it win support for the American cause in Canada.

The Staten Island Peace Conference

The Staten Island Peace Conference was a brief meeting held... Continue reading "Key Events and Figures of the American Revolution" »

The Rise of Islam

Origins and Expansion

Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula, where Arab farmers and traders worshipped multiple gods. Mecca served as their religious center. Muhammad, born in Mecca, emerged as a prophet of Allah (God). Despite facing persecution in Mecca for his teachings, Muhammad's message spread, marking the beginning of Islam.

In 622 CE, Muhammad's escape to Medina (the Hijra) marked the start of the Muslim era. He successfully converted the people of Medina, and by his death in 632 CE, a significant portion of the Arab population had embraced Islam.

The Koran and Islamic Society

The Koran, the sacred book of Islam, emphasizes the oneness of Allah. Islamic society's core principles, derived from the Koran, include:

• Allah'

Origins

Division of the Middle East between European powers after the Ottoman Empire collapses (1918-1920).

The first country to fight for independence from the OE was Greece (with the help of Britain, France, and Russia who all had interest in Ottoman territory).

[Important for KSA] Hussein Bin Ali (Hashemite dynasty): Sharif of Mecca was asked by the Young Turks to get involved and help them (acknowledging the Jihad). But, he said that he would only do this if they united into one Arab state. Turks didn’t agree and left him. British, on the other side, offered him just what he wanted if he rebelled towards Turkey. He mobilized Arabs to revolt and put his son in charge along with Lawrence of Arabia. This was an important factor in the end of... Continue reading "Sykes-Picot Agreement: Origins, Impact, and Legacy" »