Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

A More Perfect Union, 2008

Classification

• Political speech, delivered in Philadelphia during the contest for the Democratic party presidential nomination.
• An attempt to address tensions between ideals of equal citizenship and freedom expressed in the Constitution, and America's history of slavery and segregation.

Authorship

• Barack Hussein Obama (1961)
• The first African American to become President of the United States of America.
• Son of a Kenyan man and a woman from Kansas, raised by his grandparents.
• From 1997 to 2004, he was a Democratic Senator for Illinois.
• In 2009, he won the Nobel Peace Prize.

Context

• 2008 Primaries for the Democratic Candidacy were held.
• During the former President George W. Bush's administration, he had become increasingly unpopular

The Cold War: Essential Historical Facts

Timeline and Origins

• End of WWII: 1939–1945.
• End of the Cold War: 1989.
• Origin of the Term: Coined by English writer George Orwell.

Post-War Conferences

• Yalta Conference (Ukraine): The first post-war conference.
• Potsdam Conference: The second major conference.
• Shift in Relations: While the Yalta conference was cooperative due to the shared goal of defeating the Axis powers, the Potsdam conference was marked by tension. This was largely due to the new American president, who held a much stronger anti-communist stance than his predecessor.

Key Concepts and Figures

• Iron Curtain: A term coined by the British Prime Minister to describe the division of Europe.
• Soviet Leadership: Led by Joseph Stalin.
• Division of Germany:

Nazi Racial Ideology and Early Persecution

Defining the "Aryan Race" and "Sub-Humans"

Adolf Hitler propagated the belief that the "Aryan race" represented the ideal human form: blond hair, blue eyes, tall, and athletic. Conversely, he declared that Jewish people and Roma (often referred to as "Gypsies") were "sub-human" and undeserving of life.

The 1933 Sterilization Law

The Nazi regime swiftly implemented its discriminatory policies. In 1933, the Sterilization Law was passed, authorizing the forced sterilization of individuals deemed to have hereditary illnesses, such as mental disabilities. This horrific practice also extended to "tramps" and beggars. It is believed that approximately 700,000 people were forcibly sterilized under this law.

Expansion

Bourgeois Revolutions

The bourgeois revolutions enabled the bourgeoisie to gain political power and a social status which had only been available to the nobility under the Ancien Régime. These revolutions took place in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

This process was begun by two revolutions.

The American Revolution

The French Revolution

2.1. The causes of the war

The American War of Independence was caused by a combination of factors.

• Ideological factors: the colonists were familiar with Enlightenment thinking about liberty and equality. These ideas became the basis for the independence movement.
• Political factors: the British Parliament made decisions about taxes and other issues related to the colonies.
• Economic and social factors: by this

The Rise of Fascism in Italy

Post-WWI Economic and Social Context in Italy

Following World War I, Italy faced a complex and challenging situation:

• Despite benefiting from the war economically, its agriculture and industry were devastated.
• High unemployment and rising prices plagued the nation.
• The burden of war loans added to the economic strain.

The Impact of the Great Depression on Italy

The global economic crisis further exacerbated Italy's woes:

• Consumption plummeted, leading to factory closures and widespread poverty.

The Rise of Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party

In this climate of instability, Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party rose to power, capitalizing on popular discontent and promising order and stability.

Characteristics of Fascist

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)

6. Know what AFDC is and how it applies to people. Aid to Families with Dependent Children

Key Political Concepts

• Neo-institutional: The way they interact and how they affect society.
• Interest Group: Organization of people who work together to protect and promote the government. Two categories: economic and noneconomic.
• Entrepreneurial: A person who organizes and operates a business/es, takes risk.
• Client: Government Owned Enterprise (GOE), prior to marketing or sales activities.
• Majoritarian: Democracy rule of society’s citizens.

Introducing a Bill in Congress

8. How can a bill be introduced in Congress? Members of Congress are the only ones who can introduce the bill at any time the House of Senate

The Restoration Era After Napoleon (1815)

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Ancien Régime was restored. This meant a return to the political system imposed by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. These European powers met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and implemented several measures:

• Absolute monarchs were reinstated.
• Europe’s borders were redrawn.
• The European powers agreed to support any monarch facing revolution.

During the Restoration, two alliances formed:

• The Holy Alliance: Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
• The Quadruple Alliance: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain.

Key Ideologies of the 19th Century

Three main ideologies shaped the era:

• Liberalism: Advocated for individual liberties such as the right to life, freedom

The Korean War

Background

Korea had been under Japanese control since 1910. After Japan's defeat in 1945, the US and USSR agreed to temporarily divide the country into two zones along the 38th parallel to organize Japan's surrender and withdrawal. The UN wanted free elections for the whole country, which the US supported, believing that capitalism would prevail in the South, where two-thirds of the population resided. However, no agreement was reached with the USSR. Elections were held in the South, and the Independent Republic of Korea was established. Russia, in turn, created the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the North. In 1949, both USSR and US forces withdrew, leaving a dangerous situation. Most Koreans resented the division, yet... Continue reading "The Korean War: A Summary and Analysis" »

The Interwar Period and the Road to War

After World War I, the United States imposed the Dawes Plan on Germany. This was a series of economic measures involving loans aimed at increasing the value of the German mark during the Roaring Twenties. However, several factors led to renewed conflict:

• Nationalist Discontent: Italy and Germany were dissatisfied with the post-war order.
• The Treaty of Versailles: This treaty obligated territorial changes, which later influenced the conquest of Poland and Czechoslovakia.
• Diplomatic Tensions: Italy was discontented with the Triple Entente regarding promised territories like Abyssinia.
• Economic Protectionism: During the Great Depression, European governments adopted protectionist policies to reduce imports.
• Expansionism:

Russia and the Soviet Union's Path to Reform

After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War, trying to increase their worldwide influence. The Soviet Union extended over Eastern Europe, establishing permanent Communism. However, big changes and reforms were on the horizon.

Gorbachev Moves Toward Democracy

• Brezhnev and the Politburo (the ruling committee of the Communist Party) crushed all political disagreement and also restricted freedom of speech and worship.
• After Brezhnev's death in 1982, his two successors died after only about a year in office. Therefore, the Politburo debated between two men. One was Mikhail Gorbachev, who finally became the party’s new general secretary.
• The Politburo did not realize that