Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Russian Revolution of 1917

Background: From Serfdom to Discontent

The Communist Revolution, carried out in October 1917 in Russia, was the culmination of decades of social and political unrest. As late as 1861, serfdom still existed in Russia, a remnant of the feudal regime. While Tsar Alexander II freed the serfs in 1861, the legacy of this system continued to shape the country's social fabric.

Tsarism and the Russo-Japanese War

Tsarism, an absolutist monarchy, remained in place in Russia until 1905. The disastrous Russo-Japanese War of 1905, which involved mass mobilization, fueled popular discontent. Workers, seeking an end to autocracy and the establishment of a constitutional regime, staged riots. The Tsarist regime responded with brutal...

Decline of the Spanish Empire

During the reign of Fernando VII, the Spanish Empire lost most of its mainland American colonies. Only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands remained under Spanish sovereignty.

Colonial Administration Challenges

Colonial problems severely strained the administration. Rulers had to contend with Cuba's long war (1868-1878).

Cuba's Struggle for Independence

Cuba was closely linked to the U.S. economy and desired similar economic and democratic development. The U.S. even expressed interest in buying the island.

Parallel rebellions occurred in Cuba. The last, led by Céspedes, began with the "Cry of Yara," a village where the Ten Years' War started, lasting until 1878.

Furthermore, problems within the Spanish government...

Three Triumphs of Liberalism

During the minority of Isabel II, a regency was established, with Maria Cristina as the first regent. This period coincided with the Carlist War, and the liberals allied with the regency were divided into two groups: the moderates, who supported strengthening the King's position and implementing limited reforms, and the progressives, who advocated for a more extensive policy of reforms. Maria Cristina initially conceded power to the moderates, but due to protests and military uprisings, she was forced to hand over the government to the progressives.

In the following years, the progressive Mendizabal abolished remnants of the old regime, such as the confiscation of church property, and enacted the Constitution of...

The Armed Peace and the Road to War

Germany, under Chancellor Bismarck, rose to prominence in international politics. Bismarck's system of alliances aimed to isolate France and maintain a balance of power in the Balkans. This era, known as the Armed Peace, saw the formation of two major military blocs:

• The Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
• The Triple Entente: Great Britain, France, and Russia

Clashes Between Colonial Powers

Colonial rivalries intensified, notably in the two Moroccan crises. Germany challenged France's attempts to establish a protectorate in Morocco, but British support secured France's position. In the Balkans, the decline of the Ottoman Empire fueled tensions as Austria-Hungary and Russia sought to expand their...

Liberal and Moderate Political Parties

The establishment of the liberal state brought about the existence of representative bodies. Political parties remain the instruments to provide representatives to these institutions. The great restriction of voting rights and the lack of parliamentary tradition disenfranchised the vast majority of people in party politics. This caused a militarization of political life.

Party leaders were senior military officers appearing throughout politics, a strain of the "swords": Espartero, Narváez, O'Donnell, Prim, Serrano, Pavía... In the context of the Carlist civil war, the division of the Liberals ended, and the Liberal Triennium commenced in two groups: Moderates and Progressives.

The Moderates

The Moderates,...

Causes of World War I

European Rivalries

The enmity between France and Germany started with the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, where France lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany became the leading power on the continent, reaffirmed by the formation of the Triple Alliance. The European balance of power depended on the British. Economic and political differences between Britain and Germany grew, and Germany began a policy of naval construction. The Triple Entente alliance would become a major military force in Europe. The great European states initiated an arms race to increase their military potency. The great powers were preparing for war.

The Balkan Conflict

The Balkan conflict was caused by the clash of interests between Austria-Hungary and Russia....

• The Bayonne Abdication, which occurred in early May 1808 at Marracq Castle in Bayonne, France, refers to the successive resignations of Kings Carlos IV and his son, Ferdinand VII, to the throne of Spain. Napoleon then ceded these rights to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, who reigned as José I.
  The Central Supreme Junta was the accumulated legislative and executive body of Spain during the Napoleonic occupation. Established on September 25, 1808, following the Battle of Bailén and the Council of Castile declaring the Bayonne abdications void, it remained in power until January 30, 1810.
  The Aranjuez Mutiny: A popular uprising on March 18, 1808, triggered by various factors, including the consequences of the Battle of Trafalgar, popular discontent,

The Great European Powers 1870-1914

Between 1870 and 1914, the imperialist or colonialist policy launched by major European powers created rivalries between countries outside Europe that triggered the First World War.

In Western Europe

The United Kingdom, at the end of the Victorian era, continued to be the trading power and financial center of the world. France remained among the major powers, and Germany acceded to this category due to the strong development of its industry, which became the leading economic power in Europe.

Outside Europe

Two new powers were consolidated outside Europe. The United States, after the Civil War (1861-1865), became a great industrial power. Japan's rapid industrialization began, raising its weight in the Pacific...

The Glorious Revolution of 1868: A New Era in Spain

Introduction

In September 1868, a new pronouncement spearheaded by the army marked a turning point in Spanish history, setting the stage for significant political change. Generals Serrano and Prim, along with Admiral Topete, initiated a revolt in Cadiz that rapidly spread throughout the nation. The queen was exiled to France following the Battle of Alcolea. This revolution, known as the Glorious, represented a renewed effort by the bourgeoisie and a large segment of the populace to establish a democratic system.

Causes of the Revolution

• Social crisis in Andalusia, characterized by a series of peasant revolts led by landless individuals.
• Political crisis, marked by a succession of moderate and unionist

The Economy in Ancient Greece

Agriculture and Livestock

Initially, the economy was based on family farming. Livestock was limited to the domestic sphere, and gradually agriculture, specifically wheat, vine, and olive trees, gained ground.

Commerce

Commerce was gaining importance in Greece, concentrated around the port. Economic prosperity led to increased population, resulting in migrations and the founding of colonies in the Mediterranean. The exchange of goods by sea began, and some factories were established, primarily employing slaves.

The Monetary System

a) Monetary unit: drachma

b) Fractional units:

• Obol: 1/6 drachma
• Half-obol: 1/2 obol

c) Multiples:

• Didrachm: 2 drachmas
• Tetradrachm: 4 drachmas
• Decadrachm: 10 drachmas

d) Units of calculation:

• Mina: