Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Key Historical Terms

Concordat

An agreement that defines the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state.

Congress of Vienna

A conference between the European powers that defeated Napoleon, to establish European borders and secure peace.

Conservative Republic

The third phase of the French Revolution, initiated by the moderate bourgeoisie. Its government was opposed by the aristocracy and the common people.

Consulate

A period between 1799 and 1804 of autocratic and authoritarian rule; the government of France during this period.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

A text written during the first phase of the French Revolution that recognised the rights, freedom, and equality of all male citizens in law and taxation.

Directory

The... Continue reading "Key Terms: French Revolution and 19th Century Europe" »

Prelude to Revolution

In February 1917, a massive demonstration in Petrograd sparked a general strike and barracks riots. The Tsar abdicated, and a provisional government, dominated by bourgeois parties, took power.

The Provisional Government

The provisional government promised to establish a parliamentary democracy but remained committed to the war effort. This hindered promised reforms and exacerbated popular discontent.

Rise of the Soviets

The Soviets, workers' councils, demanded the government's dismissal and withdrawal from the war. The unity that had fueled the revolution began to fracture, creating a duality of power between the provisional government and the Soviets.

The Bolshevik Revolution

On October 25, 1917, the Bolsheviks, supported by... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Autocracy to Bolshevik Rule" »

The Rise of the Spanish Empire

The Catholic Monarchs (Late 15th Century)

At the end of the 15th century, the Catholic Monarchs established an authoritarian monarchy in the Iberian Peninsula, similar to those in France and England.

Dynastic Union (1469)

The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon united through a dynastic union in 1469. However, each kingdom retained its distinct laws and institutions, forming the Hispanic Monarchy.

Domestic Reforms

• Centralization of Power: The monarchs weakened the power of the nobility by creating a permanent army, gaining control of military orders and their lands, and establishing a royal treasury to increase tax revenue.
• Councils of Experts: Councils were formed to advise on matters related to territories, military orders,

Robert Southwell's "Decease Release" (c. 1593-95)

Historical Context

This poem, written around 1594, speaks through the voice of Mary Queen of Scots, a key figure in the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Mary's execution in 1587, under the reign of Elizabeth I, followed her alleged involvement in the Babington Plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Elizabeth's reign (1558-1603) was marked by the Elizabethan Settlement (1558-1559), which aimed to solidify the Protestant faith after the religious turmoil following the establishment of the Church of England. This settlement required conformity to Anglican practices, further alienating Catholics who viewed Mary as the rightful heir.

The Poem's Meaning

"Decease Release" reflects Mary's motto, "In my End is my... Continue reading "Mary Queen of Scots' Poem: "Decease Release" Analysis" »

Phases of the War

1. Initial German Offensives (1914)

Germany put the Schlieffen Plan into effect. This consisted of launching a rapid offensive on the Western Front, invading Belgium and the north of France with the aim of reaching Paris. Once France was defeated, German troops planned to advance on the Eastern Front to fight the Russians. The German plan didn't succeed because the French and British armies stopped their advance at the First Battle of the Marne.

2. Trench Warfare (1915-1916)

The Western Front between Germany and the Allies stabilized, and a new phase of the war began. As they couldn't advance, both sides focused on defending their positions. To do this, they built trenches from where they could defend themselves using new weapons,... Continue reading "World War I: Key Phases and the Paris Peace Settlement" »

October Revolution: Rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia

Kerensky's government aimed to establish a parliamentary republic in Russia. However, the Bolsheviks and the Petrograd Soviet opposed these plans, seeking to create a new Republic of Soviets.

The Revolutionary Days

The Bolshevik party had been banned, and Lenin was in exile. Despite this, Lenin remained determined to seize power, and the Soviets planned the insurrection. The victory in Petrograd was decisive, and the revolution subsequently spread to Moscow and several industrialized areas.

First Revolutionary Measures

The Second Congress of Soviets overthrew the provisional government and approved the formation of a council headed by Lenin, which became the first government of workers and peasants.... Continue reading "The October Revolution: Rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia" »

Environmental Challenges and Their Impact

The Devastating Consequences of Environmental Degradation

In recent decades, environmental problems such as excessive pollution, deforestation, and the depletion of natural resources have had devastating consequences. Many species are endangered, and others have already disappeared.

Taking Action for a Sustainable Future

We can take steps in our daily lives to mitigate these issues:

• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Minimize consumption and prioritize recycling and reuse.
• Government Regulation: Advocate for stricter laws to curb pollution and protect natural resources.
• Fire Prevention and Accountability: Implement measures to control fires and hold those responsible for environmental damage accountable.

We must recognize... Continue reading "Environmental Challenges and Societal Shifts in the Modern Era" »