Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Second World War, WWII, and WW2 redirect here. For other uses, see The Second World War and WWII.

World War II: A Global Conflict (1939–1945)

World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis.

Total War and the Deadliest Conflict in History

A state of total war emerged, directly involving more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries. The major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. World War II was the... Continue reading "World War II: History of the Global Conflict 1939-1945" »

Joseph Addison (1672–1719) from The Spectator, N 69 (Published in 1711)

The Royal Exchange

In the periodical The Spectator No. 69, Joseph Addison creates a persona that reveals a new, diverse society of merchants who established the Royal Exchange. These merchants rivaled the powers of Parliament and past Monarchies over the British domains.

The Royal Exchange, located in the heart of the City (London's financial district), was not only a hub for business but also a center for eighteenth-century essays, poetry, letters, and opinions, originally edited by Addison and Steele.

It stands as a symbol of globalisation, highlighting the “increasing importance of the international commerce to the British economy.” Addison believed the world seemed... Continue reading "Joseph Addison and the Royal Exchange: 18th-Century Commerce" »

Bismarck's Alliance System

After the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck's goal was to isolate France to prevent them from recapturing Alsace and Lorraine. To achieve this, he created an intricate alliance system:

• League of the Three Emperors between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia (1873 and 1881). Russia would not help France, and Austria-Hungary would not support England.
• Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (1882). It was renewed until 1914. The goal was to isolate France and ensure Italy's neutrality in case of war between Austria and Russia.
• Mediterranean Agreements (1887) with Great Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Spain to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean.
• Reinsurance Treaty (1887) between Russia and

The History of Fascism in Italy

The Birth of Italian Fascism

Italy participated in the later stages of World War I on the side of the Allies. Following the war, economic and social conditions began deteriorating rapidly starting in 1919. This instability led to the rise of a new political movement centered around **Benito Mussolini**. In 1919, he founded the **Fascist Party**. Mussolini aimed to emulate the power and glory of ancient Rome and attracted followers who shared a dislike of the current political situation.

Mussolini was supported by paramilitary formations, notably the *Squadri di combattimento* and the *Camicie Nere* (or **Black Shirts**). These volunteer battalions dressed alike and aggressively pushed for political change, often... Continue reading "Benito Mussolini and the Rise of Italian Fascism" »

Imperialism and Its Causes

From 1870, European colonial expansion turned to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific and entered a new phase known as Imperialism. Unlike the previous form of Colonialism, whose main objective was to dominate the economic resources of the colonies, Imperialism implied the military, political, and economic control of the European minority over the dominated territories.

Key Drivers of the New Colonial Momentum

The new colonial momentum was due to different causes:

• Political and strategic: The possession of colonies assured the power and the international prestige of countries or allowed trade routes and strategic territories to be controlled.
• Demographic: The colonies provided territories where excess population could be sent

Setting and Context

• c1 The only job Philip knew was _____.
• c2 Jockeys wore _____ for races.
• b3 Philip felt that riding was _____ for a grown man.
• a4 Philip never went anywhere without a _____.
• b5 Harold Osborne told Philip that he must always _____ Victor Briggs.
• b6 Philip always had a drink with _____ on Sunday.
• a7 George Millace was killed _____.
• b8 In his box, George kept his _____.
• d9 Steve broke his _____ when he fell from his horse.
• d10 Philip’s mother had left him with Charlie when he was _____ years old.

Characters

• b11 George Millace was a famous photographer of _____.
• c12 Steve Millace was George’s _____.
• a13 Harold Osborne _____.
• b14 Victor Briggs owned _____.
• d15 _____ had taught Philip about photography.
• a16 Jeremy Folk was about _____, very

1921 Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party

and proclaimed himself the leader. Fascism: support of the board of the social sector, renew Italy. 1922 blackshirts (paramilitary militias) undertook Rome. King Victor Emanuel III entrusted him to form a new government. Mussolini has social, political cultural, politics, economy, society power.

1925 assassination of Matteotti = the Parliament dissolved

, fascism dictatorship installed. Crisis in 1929 unemployment- Public Works/ imperialist expansion by the state = good propaganda

1930 Italy allied with Germany

The Treaty of Versailles pulled Germany into misery. Violent political and social situation = Nazis party led by Adolf Hitler 1933 enormous inflation lead to nowhere. Munich Putsch- I failed... Continue reading "Rise of Fascism and Nazism Leading to World War II" »

Causes of World War I

The outbreak of the Great War was driven by militarism (the arms race) and the alliance system, consisting of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Nationalism fueled tensions, particularly between Germany and France, and Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Serbian expansionism, the rejection of the ultimatum, and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand were critical triggers. Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum with German support (the "blank cheque"), while Russia promoted Serbian Pan-Slavism, sought war against Germany, and mobilized its army. Germany faced tensions with France and the UK and eventually invaded Belgium. France sought revenge against Germany and was allied with Russia, while the UK defended Belgium... Continue reading "The Great War and the Rise of the Soviet Union" »

Key Figures of the Civil Rights Movement

• Martin Luther King Jr.: A Christian minister elected president of the SCLC in 1957.
• Malcolm X: An African American radical who converted to the Nation of Islam while in prison; the "X" represents his lost African name. He was later assassinated.
• Rosa Parks: An African American seamstress and activist who famously refused to give up her bus seat to a white passenger.
• T. Eugene "Bull" Connor: Birmingham's public safety commissioner who infamously used police dogs and fire hoses against protesters.
• Thurgood Marshall: An African American lawyer from Baltimore, Maryland, who led the NAACP legal team in challenging the legality of segregation in the courts.
• Medgar Evers: A civil rights activist who helped James

League of Nations and Post-War Settlements

The League of Nations, established on January 1, 1920, was an international institution whose primary task was to prevent future conflicts and bring global stability. It was based in Geneva, Switzerland.

• Assembly: Included all member nations.
• Council: Presided over the Assembly; initially comprised only the Allied powers.

Notably, the U.S. Senate rejected American participation, and Germany and Russia were initially barred from joining.

The Paris Peace Treaties

The peace negotiations were heavily influenced by the leaders present:

• USA (President Woodrow Wilson): Advocated for the Fourteen Points, aiming for a new world based on democracy and national self-determination.
• France (Georges Clemenceau): Sought