Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Regency of María Cristina (1833-1840)

Isabella II became Queen at only three years old. Consequently, her mother, María Cristina, became regent. The first government was very conservative, but the Carlist Wars (1833-1840) forced the regent to embrace liberalism. Initially, Maria Cristina supported moderate liberals, who implemented minor reforms.

Maria Cristina appointed Juan Álvarez Mendizabal as president. He:

• Abolished the Ancient Regime
• Implemented fiscal reforms
• Dissolved manorialism
• Initiated a disentailment of property and confiscation of Church property
• Abolished the Mesta and guilds

These changes triggered military uprisings, popular revolts, and the mutiny of "La Granja" in 1836, along with uprisings by liberals and complaints from... Continue reading "María Cristina & Espartero: Regency in Spain (1833-1843)" »

Q.1 American Revolution & Locke's Influence

• John Locke Two Treatises of Government

According to John Locke, the British King did not have the divine right of kings to rule; rather, the ruled were to receive "Life, liberty, and property" in a social contract between the subjects and the King.

If he broke the contract, the ruled had the right to revolt.

• Founding Fathers of American Revolution borrowed from Locke "Life, liberty and pursuit of happiness" and the right to revolt from the British King

Q.2 The Politics of Signing of the US Constitution

• Philadelphia Convention

The formal signing of the Constitution took place on September 17, 1787, almost 109 days after the Philadelphia Convention first met.

Meeting on September 13, 1788, the Articles... Continue reading "The American Revolution, Locke's Influence, and the Politics of the US Constitution" »

The Commonwealth Realm

The Commonwealth Realm is a group of 15 sovereign states that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. These states have Queen Elizabeth II as their reigning constitutional monarch and share the same royal line of succession. They are part of the Commonwealth and were formerly part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth of Nations itself is an intergovernmental organization of 53 member states, most of which were territories of the former British Empire.

The British Empire

The British Empire comprised dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom.

Were All Countries in the Commonwealth Former British Colonies?

Commonwealth members are a diverse group. The... Continue reading "The Commonwealth Realm: History, Members, and Origins" »

Argentina

Economic Growth (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

Argentina's economic growth during this period hinged on three factors:

• A booming European market for Argentine products
• An influx of immigrants providing cheap labor
• Significant foreign investment capital

Both rich and poor relied on the export economy, though its benefits were unevenly distributed. Notably, male employers favored women workers, perceiving them as cheaper, more reliable, efficient, and docile than their male counterparts. Despite Argentina's vast land being its greatest asset, ownership was concentrated in the hands of a few.

Society

Argentine society was stratified into three classes:

• Upper Class: Held a monopoly on land ownership and political control.
• Middle Class: Dominated

The Great Depression: Causes and Impact

The period generally referenced as the Great Depression spanned from the stock market crash of 1929, following a decade of economic instability, until the late 1930s. The problems that led to this severe crisis include:

• Overproduction: American industry produced more goods than the population could purchase, leading to factory closures and economic stagnation.
• Falling Consumption: As companies closed down, people lost their jobs, reducing spending and overall demand for goods.
• The Wall Street Crash: Many companies whose shares were sold on the stock market began to fail and crashed in 1929. This triggered a series of protests against the government and the capitalist system that had produced the crisis.

United

The Russian Revolution of 1917

Causes of the Revolution

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia's empire extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from Poland to the Pacific Ocean. It was ruled by the Tsars of the Romanov dynasty and was in a state of turmoil. Dissatisfaction at the political level was due to the autocratic government of the tsars and led to political opposition made up of liberal bourgeois parties and Marxist revolutionary parties, such as the Bolsheviks.

Economic and Social Discontent

Dissatisfaction at the economic and social levels was due to the contrast between the rich minority, who owned land and factories, and the extremely poor peasants and industrial proletariat.

The Revolutions of 1905 and 1917

• In 1905, general

Between 1870 and 1914, Europe experienced a period known as the "Armed Peace." Despite the absence of major wars, tensions simmered among European nations, leading to a significant arms race. Countries dedicated a substantial portion of their resources to military production, creating an atmosphere of unease and anticipation.

The Importance of the German Empire

Following its unification in 1871, Germany emerged as the dominant power in Europe, driven by its robust economic and military development. German foreign policy during this period can be divided into two distinct phases:

The Bismarckian System (1871-1890)

Under Emperor Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany pursued a diplomatic strategy aimed at maintaining the balance of power... Continue reading "The Armed Peace in Europe (1870-1914)" »

General Porfirio Diaz seized power in 1876. Having installed himself as president, Diaz paid his respects to the principle of no re-election by allowing a trusted crony, General Manuel Gonzalez, to succeed him in 1880. Diaz returned to the presidential palace in 1884 and continued to occupy it until his resignation and flight from Mexico in 1911. The Porfiriato was one of the longest personal dictatorships in Latin American history.

Political Control and Economic Objectives

• By 1880, Diaz had granted even more lavish subsidies for railway construction to North American companies.
• Economic development was Diaz's primary objective, key to solving his problems and the nation's.
• Diaz promoted a policy of conciliation, described by the formula pan o

Napoleonic Rule in France

The Consulate (1799-1804)

A new regime, the Consulate, was established following the coup d'état of 1799. Under its constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, held dictatorial power. This constitution was later revised:

• In 1802, Napoleon was made Consul for life.
• In 1804, he became Emperor, with the assent of the electorate.

Key Napoleonic Reforms

Several important reforms were implemented during Napoleon's rule:

• The central administration was reorganized for efficiency.
• The court system was simplified.
• Control over the school system was centralized under the state.
• French laws were standardized in the influential Napoleonic Code (Civil Code) and six other codes. These guaranteed rights and liberties won during the

In 1959, *Cuba* became the scene of the most successful social revolution in Latin America. This pivotal event was the culmination of decades of political unrest, foreign intervention, and internal struggles for sovereignty and self-determination.

Roots of Revolution: Spanish Rule and US Intervention

*José Martí* was a key leader and founder of *El Partido Revolucionario Cubano*, advocating for Cuba's independence from Spain. However, the brutal tactics of Spanish General *Valeriano Weyler*, who killed many insurgents, fueled further hatred towards Spanish rule.

American businesses in Cuba faced destruction due to the ongoing conflict, causing significant concern in the United States. By 1898, the situation in Cuba was out of control, prompting... Continue reading "Cuba's Revolutionary Path: From Spanish Rule to Castro" »