Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Between 1870 and 1914, Europe experienced a period known as the "Armed Peace." Despite the absence of major wars, tensions simmered among European nations, leading to a significant arms race. Countries dedicated a substantial portion of their resources to military production, creating an atmosphere of unease and anticipation.

The Importance of the German Empire

Following its unification in 1871, Germany emerged as the dominant power in Europe, driven by its robust economic and military development. German foreign policy during this period can be divided into two distinct phases:

The Bismarckian System (1871-1890)

Under Emperor Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany pursued a diplomatic strategy aimed at maintaining the balance of power... Continue reading "The Armed Peace in Europe (1870-1914)" »

General Porfirio Diaz seized power in 1876. Having installed himself as president, Diaz paid his respects to the principle of no re-election by allowing a trusted crony, General Manuel Gonzalez, to succeed him in 1880. Diaz returned to the presidential palace in 1884 and continued to occupy it until his resignation and flight from Mexico in 1911. The Porfiriato was one of the longest personal dictatorships in Latin American history.

Political Control and Economic Objectives

• By 1880, Diaz had granted even more lavish subsidies for railway construction to North American companies.
• Economic development was Diaz's primary objective, key to solving his problems and the nation's.
• Diaz promoted a policy of conciliation, described by the formula pan o

Napoleonic Rule in France

The Consulate (1799-1804)

A new regime, the Consulate, was established following the coup d'état of 1799. Under its constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, held dictatorial power. This constitution was later revised:

• In 1802, Napoleon was made Consul for life.
• In 1804, he became Emperor, with the assent of the electorate.

Key Napoleonic Reforms

Several important reforms were implemented during Napoleon's rule:

• The central administration was reorganized for efficiency.
• The court system was simplified.
• Control over the school system was centralized under the state.
• French laws were standardized in the influential Napoleonic Code (Civil Code) and six other codes. These guaranteed rights and liberties won during the

In 1959, *Cuba* became the scene of the most successful social revolution in Latin America. This pivotal event was the culmination of decades of political unrest, foreign intervention, and internal struggles for sovereignty and self-determination.

Roots of Revolution: Spanish Rule and US Intervention

*José Martí* was a key leader and founder of *El Partido Revolucionario Cubano*, advocating for Cuba's independence from Spain. However, the brutal tactics of Spanish General *Valeriano Weyler*, who killed many insurgents, fueled further hatred towards Spanish rule.

American businesses in Cuba faced destruction due to the ongoing conflict, causing significant concern in the United States. By 1898, the situation in Cuba was out of control, prompting... Continue reading "Cuba's Revolutionary Path: From Spanish Rule to Castro" »

DEMOCRACY:

A political system in which people choose their leaders by voting for them.

• Freedom: Is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants. (Es el poder o el derecho de actuar, hablar o pensar como uno quiera.)
• Power of division: The political power is divided to avoid having a single group that governs: Legislative, executive, judicial. (El poder político se divide para evitar tener un solo grupo que gobierne: Legislativo, Ejecutivo, Judicial.)
• Equality: We are all equal under the law. The state of being equal, especially in status, rights, or opportunities. (Todos somos iguales ante la ley. El estado de ser igual, especialmente en estatus, derechos u oportunidades.)
• Representative:  People take part in politics by voting for

The Dawn of Latin American Independence (1810-1825)

The Independence movement in Latin America, which had been simmering since the United States broke away from Great Britain in 1776, came to a boil around 1810. Spain's vast Empire in the New World crumbled, and by 1825, all that remained were a few islands in the Caribbean. This passionate, violent era in Latin American history is particularly fascinating. In 1810, South America was still part of Spain's immense New World Empire. By 1825, however, the continent was free, having won its independence at the cost of bloody wars with Spanish and royalist forces. Independence might never have been achieved without the brave leadership of men and women ready to fight for liberty.

Key Causes of Independence

• Creole

Mexico's Path to Independence and Early Republic

In Mexico, the struggle for independence began with priests Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos y Pavón. It was ultimately completed by Agustín de Iturbide, who led a coalition of Creoles terrified of being governed by the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812.

Economic Challenges of the New Nation

With the end of the Spanish monopoly, the volume of foreign trade grew significantly, from 148 ships in 1823 to 639 in 1826. However, exports did not keep pace with imports, creating a substantial deficit. This imbalance necessitated the export of precious metals, which in turn created severe problems for the new government. The only way to overcome this crisis was through foreign loans.... Continue reading "Mexico's 19th Century: Independence, Reform, and Nation-Building" »

George ORWELL.Eric (George) was A middle-class Indian. Hi father was an officer in Burma. His mother Took him to England and there he was vrey happy. At the age of 8 he Was sent to a boarding school and it was very traumatic because he Was alone. Being middle-class, Orwell's family could afford to send Him to a boarding school. George was a smart child. In theory, the Boarding school trated all children gool, but in practise the Threatment depended on their status. Orwell felt discriminated, Undervalued by rich people. They gave him his first social injustice. They beat and called cynic for not being like the others. Eric wanted To go to University, but what he did was to be a policeman in India. He returned to Burma, which was under the power... Continue reading "Who did George try to find out what wanted" »

The Russian Revolution: Key Events, Causes, and Outcomes

The February Revolution (1917)

The uprising in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in February 1917 culminated in the February Revolution. The monarchy fell and was replaced by two bodies:

1. The Provisional Government: Created to organize elections for a Duma. Alexander Kerensky took control of this government.
2. The Petrograd Soviet: Represented the workers and soldiers.

The Bolshevik Slogan

The Bolsheviks' slogan was:

• Peace: An end to World War I.
• Bread: Relief from the prevalent hunger.
• Land: Redistribution of land owned by the aristocracy.

The October Revolution (1917)

The Bolsheviks seized power in an uprising planned by Leon Trotsky, the president of the Petrograd Soviet. The Bolsheviks formed a new government,... Continue reading "Russian Revolution: Key Events, Causes, and Outcomes" »

Key Events Leading to World War II

• 1919: The Treaty of Versailles is signed.
• 1924: Hitler writes "Mein Kampf," outlining his plans.
• 1939: The Global Depression, triggered by the Wall Street crash, helps dictators rise to power.
• 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor and begins to rebuild his army in secret.
• 1935: Abyssinia invasion: The League of Nations fails.
• 1936: The Rhineland is reoccupied.
• 1936-1939: The Spanish Civil War (Germany rehearses arms and aircraft).
• 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis: Hitler-Mussolini Alliance.
• 1938: Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Germany.
• 1938: Munich Agreement (Hitler sought more power and territories).
• 1939: Nazis invade Czechoslovakia.
• 1939: The Nazi-Soviet Pact.
• 1939: Invasion of Poland.

World War II: Major Events

• 1939-9: Nazi