Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Election of 1960

JFK was an expert at public speaking; he projected the image of the most self-confident leader. Television was one of his most effective weapons, and through it, the Kennedy/Camelot myth was born.

A New Era Inaugurated

In his address, we observe not a victory of party, but a celebration of freedom—symbolizing an end, as well as a beginning—signifying renewal, as well as change.

"Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage—and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this Nation has

INDEPENDENCE, CONSTITUTION, BILL OF RIGHTS

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ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE

WHY INDEPENDENCE? Two main ideological roots that are opposed:

OLD REGIME

It was a social and political system established in Western Europe from approximately the 15th century. The political system was authoritarian and had absolute monarchy, demography (old demographic regime), society (estates of realm), economy (agrarian subsistence economy), and religion.

ENLIGHTENMENT

It was an intellectual movement developed in the 18th century. It started in France and spread to Europe and America. It defended progress, education, nature, encyclopedias, and separation of powers.

REVOLUTION

A historical process that drives to a very deep change which can be political or economical. They are usually short.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION

The progress of independence of the USA (1775-1783). It was a colonial revolt against the British... Continue reading "The Old Regime, Enlightenment, and Revolution in Europe and America" »

World War II

WW2 (1939-1945) was a vast conflict between Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) and Allied Powers (Britain, USSR, France, USA). Consequences:

• Impact of WW1: Germany lost territory and economy was damaged by the need to pay war reparations.
• Rise of fascism and nationalism: Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, many feared a communist revolution.
• Weakness of democracies: Expansionism of Germany and Italy was only possible because Britain and France avoided another war.
• Great Depression: Economic crises in many countries led to extreme ideologies like Nazism.

Outbreak of WW2: Germany claimed lost territory from Poland, leading to the invasion in 1939. Advance of Fascism: Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931, while Germany and Italy made... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Events, and Consequences" »

Question 1

What did the U.S. do during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis?

Kennedy ordered a naval and air blockade around Cuba, a quarantine against all offensive weapons.

Question 2

In the 1960s, the radical group known as “Weathermen” was involved in:

College bombings that claimed several lives.

Question 3

When was the Equal Pay Act passed by Congress?

June 10, 1963.

Question 4

What happened during the Yom Kippur War of 1973?

Syria and Egypt held a surprise attack on Israeli-held lands.

Question 5

How did the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton end?

It ended with no charge attracting a majority of votes in the Senate.

Question 6

In 1992, Ross Perot made the best third-party showing in American politics since:

Theodore Roosevelt in 1912.

Question 7

In... Continue reading "20th Century American History Quiz" »

Mussolini’s rise to power

To the majority of Italians, the Versailles settlement was a bitter disappointment. Although Italy gained some territories, it was ignored. It seemed that other countries, particularly Yugoslavia, had gained at Italy’s expense. The territories that Italy gained were Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, and Trieste.

Italy had borrowed heavily to finance its involvement in the First World War, leading to soaring inflation. In addition to this massive increase in the cost of living, Italians faced high unemployment as industry reduced production. The number of people seeking jobs increased with the return of the soldiers. Italy's parliamentary system was based on proportional representation, with more than nine political... Continue reading "Mussolini's Rise to Power and Foreign Policy" »

Main idea:

Explaining the Popular Front program (3 important ideas:)

• Intro: Explaining the purpose of the text: explaining the objectives agreed by the different left groups that united in a coalition, the Popular Front, drew up a common government program
• Agreements between signatories: in 2 things X problems between republicans and socialists: Grant a broad amnesty to imprisoned for social and political reasons after the 1933 elections, Restore principles of Constitution 1931 and reforms initiated during the Reform Biennium
• Disagreements between Socialists and Republicans: Measures proposed by Socialists not approved by Republicans (Nationalization of land, although they recognize the need to improve the system of land distribution to the peasantry

World War II International Pacts and Alliances

The Formation of the Axis Powers

The Axis Powers (initially Italy, Japan, and Germany) were united by common interests in territorial expansion and a shared opposition to Communism. Key agreements included:

• Rome-Berlin Axis: Germany (GER) and Italy (ITA) supported Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War.
• Anti-Comintern Pact: Signed by Germany and Japan (JPN) against Soviet Communism.
• Pact of Steel: A formal military alliance between Germany and Italy. This alliance officially formed the core of the Axis Powers, which Japan joined in 1940.

The German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

The Non-Aggression Pact (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) was signed by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union on August 23, 1939. This... Continue reading "World War II Alliances, Nazi Consolidation, and the Rise of Soviet Communism" »

Key Events: 1939–1955

1. In 1945, at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the Allies decided how to end WWII.
2. In August 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Japan.
3. In March 1946 Winston Churchill made a speech about the Iron Curtain, describing a divided Europe.
4. In 1947, President Harry S. Truman developed the Truman Doctrine to contain Communism.
5. In 1948 the Czechoslovakian coup d’état gave power to the Communists.
6. In June 1948, U.S. General George C. Marshall launched the Marshall Plan, named after him, to provide economic help to Europe.
7. In 1948–1949 Berlin was blockaded by the USSR; Western Allies organized the Berlin Airlift.
8. In 1949, NATO was set up by the United States and Western countries as a military pact against the Soviet

The French Revolution: Key Stages and Causes

The Four Stages of the French Revolution

1st Stage: The Moderate Phase (1789–1791)

• Meeting of the Estates-General
• Fall of the Bastille
• Development of a Constitution and Bill of Rights

2nd Stage: The Radical Phase (1792–1794)

• Execution of Louis XVI
• Rise of Maximilien Robespierre
• The Reign of Terror

3rd Stage: The Conservative Phase (1795–1799)

• Period of reaction against the violence of the Revolution
• Establishment of the Directory

4th Stage: The Napoleonic Phase (1799–1815)

• Rise of Napoleon: Dictator to Emperor
• France builds an empire
• Collapse of Napoleon’s Empire

French Society Divided: The Three Estates

French society was divided into three estates, which determined a person’s legal rights and status:... Continue reading "The French Revolution Timeline: Causes, Stages, and Impact" »