Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

World War I: Causes and Outbreak

World War I began in 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. The conflict pitted the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire) against the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan, and the United States).

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered a series of diplomatic crises that led to the outbreak of war. Austria-Hungary, convinced that Serbia was behind the assassination, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its army in response, prompting Germany to declare war on Russia and France.

Within a week, World War I had begun, with Russia, Belgium, France,... Continue reading "World War I: Causes, Consequences, and Impact" »

Causes of the Crisis of 1917

As Spain benefited from exporting to other countries while workers continued to receive the same wages, a crisis formed that affected several areas:

• Social Crisis: The socialist unions (UGT) and anarchist unions (CNT) called a general strike with the aim of overthrowing the political system of the Restoration.
• Military Crisis: Soldiers joined organizations called Juntas de Defensa Militar and demanded higher salaries. They also called for political changes and the continuation of the war in Morocco.
• Political Crisis: Catalans, Republicans, and Socialists met in an Assembly of Parliamentarians and tried to impose political reform. However, the assembly was dissolved by the government.

Consequences of the Crisis of 1917

The... Continue reading "Spain's 1917 Crisis & 1931 Constitution Reforms" »

RB 23rd February 1917. It began with a demonstration in Petrograd. Troops refused to shoot at strikers. Nicholas II abdicated, and a Provisional Government was formed.

Russia continued in the war, which worsened the crisis. Lenin claimed to power for the Soviets. With his April Theses ask for a new revolution supporting the Russian withdrawal from the war, the redistribution of the land, and the control of factories by worker's committees.

RB Oct. Planified by Lenin and Trotsky. The 24th, the former joined the Soviet of Petrogard, and the next day the strategic points around the city were taken over. The agrarian property was distributed among the peasants... Security was guaranteed by the public service.

The Dawes plan: 1924 a set of measures... Continue reading "Law 19983 on" »

Key Terms and Concepts

• Tanks: War machines
• Enlist: Sign-up to war
• Counter-attack: To fight back
• Stalemate: Situation where no one can win
• Revolution: The people don't want a king
• Armistice: Agreement to stop war
• Reserves: Spare stocks, material, and army of the war
• Offensive: An aggressive movement or attack

Key Leaders

• Germany: Kaiser Wilhelm II
• Austria-Hungary: Emperor Franz Josef
• Russia: Tsar Nicholas II
• Britain: Prime Minister George V
• Italy: Prime Minister Antonio Salandra (until two years into the war, then Giovanni Giolitti)
• France: Prime Minister George Clemenceau

Alliances

• Triple Entente: Russia, France, Britain
• Triple Alliance: Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary
• Russia-France Alliance

Key Events of 1914

• June 28: Franz Ferdinand assassinated
• July 23: Austria

The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present-day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent. There were multiple motivations including the quest for national prestige, tensions between pairs of European powers, religious missionary zeal and internal African native politics.

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference... Continue reading "The Scramble for Africa: European Colonization and the Berlin Conference" »

Decline of the Spanish Habsburgs (1598-1700)

Reign of Felipe III (1598-1621)

A trade authority was founded in Sevilla to regulate trade with America, impose taxes on goods entering Spain, and control emigration. Unlike his energetic father, Felipe III delegated political decisions to a royal favorite, the Duke of Lerma, who prioritized personal interests over effective governance. This led to financial problems that severely impacted the Spanish economy. The Duke of Lerma's most disastrous decision was the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609. This hard-working minority group's departure further damaged the already weakened economy. In foreign affairs, a period of relative peace followed the continuous wars of the previous century. Peace was signed... Continue reading "Decline of the Spanish Habsburgs: From Felipe III to Carlos II" »

The Caliphate of Córdoba and the Emirate of Córdoba

The Caliphate of Córdoba was an Andalusian Muslim state with its capital in Córdoba, proclaimed by Abderramán III. The Emirate of Córdoba was an independent emirate with its capital also in Córdoba.

The Black Death

The Black Death has been one of the most devastating pandemics in human history. It affected Europe in the 14th century and peaked between 1347 and 1353, killing more than a third of the European population. The Black Death had an extremely high mortality in Europe because people lived closely together without any type of hygiene in the most affected areas. The plague spread from Italy throughout Europe, affecting territories of present-day France, Spain, England, Britain, Germany,... Continue reading "The Caliphate of Córdoba and the Impact of the Black Death" »

Consequences of World War II

• The United Nations was created to avoid conflicts and to maintain peace.
• The United States and the Soviet Union went from being allies to enemies, leading to a military and nuclear build-up.
• The United States and the United Kingdom were capitalist; the Soviet Union was communist.
• The two superpowers each wanted to be the world leader.
• Decolonization in Africa and Asia began.
• Disagreements between both blocks led to the Cold War (1947 - 1991).
• NATO was formed as a military pact between the USA and Western countries.
• The Warsaw Pact was formed as a military pact between the USSR and its allies.

Cold War (1947 - 1991)

• When did it start? In 1947.
• What happened? A tense relationship developed between the two blocks.
• Causes? Ideological

The Polish Problem

In the summer of 1939, Poland was unaware of the impending war.

German Invasion

August 31, 1939:

• Provocation of Gleiwitz: Germany staged an attack on its own radio station to blame Poland.

September 1, 1939:

• Germany invaded Poland without a declaration of war.
• Schleswig-Holstein battle: German battleship attacked the port of Gdańsk.

Soviet Invasion

September 17, 1939:

• Soviet Union invaded Poland under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

Poland under German Occupation

• Headquarters in Kraków: Nazis established the General Government.
• Robbery of Art: Masterpieces were stolen.
• Sonderaktion Krakau: Intellectual elites, including professors, were arrested.

Soviet Occupation

• Katyn Massacre: Polish military elites were executed in the Katyn Forest.
• Civilians