Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Dutch Republic's Independence

The United Provinces gained independence from Spain in 1648, establishing a republic comprised of seven provinces, each with its own Parliament. Representatives from each province convened at the States General to make collective decisions.

The Rise of Parliament in England

The Road to a Parliamentary System

In the early 17th century, Stuart kings sought absolute rule over Great Britain and Ireland, rejecting Parliament. This unpopular move, coupled with religious revolts in Scotland, ignited a revolution in 1640.

Civil War and the Fall of the Stuarts

Confrontations escalated into the Civil War in 1642, culminating in the downfall of the Stuart dynasty. Charles I's execution marked the end of the monarchy. Parliamentarian... Continue reading "17th Century Revolutions: Rise of Parliament and Scientific Method" »

Beer

Brewing Process

1. Malting
2. Mashing
3. Wort Separation
4. Wort Boiling
5. Fermentation

Beer Styles and Ingredients

• Older styles like ale and stout use top fermentation.
• The most common grain used for beer is barley.
• Hops are added during wort boiling for bitterness and aroma.
• The two main categories of wheat beer are Kristallweizen and Hefeweizen.
• Bitter is a type of beer usually hand-pumped in pubs.
• IPAs are known for their strong, hoppy character.
• Pale Lager is the most popular beer category.

Rum

Production and History

• The evaporation of spirit during aging is called Angel's Share.
• Rhum Industriel is made from molasses, a by-product of sugar refining.
• Brazil's national spirit is Cachaça, made from sugarcane juice.
• Rhum Agricole is made directly from sugarcane juice.

The Restoration was a return to the political system of the Ancien Regime that was imposed by the victorious European powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain) after Napoleon’s defeat (1815 - 1830).

The supporters of the Restoration believedthat the monarch was the only person cable of leading a country. Popular sovereignty and constitutions could no longer exist because they limited the power of the monarchy

With this objective in the view, the European powers met at the 1814 - 1815 Congress of Vienna. There they adopted a series of measures. Absolute monarchies were reinstated, Europe’s borders were changed, and The European powers agreed to support any monarch who was threatened by revolution.

Two European alliances were formed... Continue reading "ecdxsa" »

Humanism was a cultural movement that first began in the 14 century. It developed fully in the 15 and 16 centuries in the rich city-states of the northern parta of the italian peninsula.

humanists developed an anthropocentric wold view as an alternative to the God-centred world view of medieval christians. Humans and their intelligence became the main concerns of the humanists.

17th Century Transformations

Political Shifts: Decline of Spain & Rise of Absolutism

Serious international confrontations led to the decline of Spain's hegemony in Europe. Authoritarian monarchy was replaced by absolute monarchy.

Economic Changes: Mercantilism and Financial Capitalism

The rise of commerce encouraged financial capitalism, and most states imposed mercantilism as their economic policy.

Social Upheaval: The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The traditional society of the three estates began to fracture due to the rise of the bourgeoisie.

Cultural & Scientific Revolution: Birth of Modern Science

The 17th century witnessed the birth of modern science. The application of experimental methods gave rise to a scientific revolution.

Political Systems

1789 - Summoning of the Estate General

Mao Zedong's Social Policies

Mao Zedong implemented a series of social policies aimed at transforming Chinese society. These policies included:

1. Organic Law: Served as the constitution until 1954, establishing a coalition government.
2. Mass Line: Involved CCP officials working closely with the people.
3. Continuous Revolution & Rectification: Encouraged criticism and self-criticism to shape people's thoughts.
4. Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957): Initially removed censorship for six weeks but ended in purges of intellectuals and opposition during the Anti-Rightist Campaign.
5. Thought Reform Movement (1951): Focused on arts, documents, and literature.
6. Land Reforms: Aimed to remove the bourgeois class.
7. Organizations: Established groups like the National Women'

Marxism and Anarchism: Revolutionary Ideologies of the 19th Century

Revolutionary ideologies emerged in the 19th century. These ideologies promoted working-class interests and aimed to transform society through a workers' revolution. The most important of these were Marxism and Anarchism.

Marxism

Marxism is a socialist ideology developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels based on their analysis of politics and the economy. It advocates for the destruction of capitalism and the establishment of a communist society. Key concepts include:

• Class struggle: The oppressed proletariat would organize themselves and struggle against their oppressors, the capitalist bourgeoisie. Their objective would be to gain political power.
• The dictatorship of the working

FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)

It was fought by various European countries and their African and Asian colonies, the United States, Japan, China, and some Latin American republics.

Causes of the war

Control of the Balkans: The Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russian Empire competed for the control of the Balkans. Also, Serbia was angry about the expansion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into the area. This led to a crisis. Control of some colonies: France wanted to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine. France and Germany also competed for control of colonies, important for economic expansion, especially Morocco. Great Britain supremacy of its merchant navy threatened: When the German empire, which had become an economic power during the Second Industrial... Continue reading "Causes, Phases, and Consequences of the First World War" »