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19th Century Spain and Europe: Art, Politics, and Independence

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Supreme Central Junta

This political association of patriots led the war effort and governed Spain during the monarchy's instability.

Constitution of 1812

Drafted by the Courts of Cádiz, this document recognized equality under the law, established national sovereignty, and the separation of powers. Absolutism was replaced by a liberal political system, although the monarchy remained. Universal male suffrage was also accepted.

European Alliances

Two main alliance systems existed. The first, the Bismarckian system, was based on secret diplomacy promoted by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to isolate France and prevent its alliance with Russia against Germany. This system lasted for 20 years. The second, "Peace through Strength" (1891-1914), saw the

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The Heirs of Rome: Islam, Byzantium, and Europe

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The Caliphs, Muhammad's Successors, 632-750

In the new political community he founded in Arabia, Muhammad reorganized traditional Arab society by cutting across clan allegiances and welcoming converts from every tribe. He forged the Muslims into a formidable military force, and his successors, the caliphs, used this force to take the Byzantine and Persian worlds by storm.

After Muhammad's death, the Muslims moved to the north and west quickly taking Byzantine territory in Syria and Egypt. They invaded the Sasanid empire, conquering the whole of Persia by 651.

During the last half of the seventh century and the beginning of the eighth, Islamic warriors extended their sway westward to Spain and eastward to India.

There were also internal reasons

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19th Century European Unification and Political Shifts

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GERMAN UNIFICATION

Factors Leading to Unification:

  • Following the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation was fragmented into 39 states.
  • The rise of liberal and nationalist ideologies.
  • The Frankfurt Parliament's attempt to establish a unified state with universal male suffrage during the Revolution of 1848.
  • The establishment of the Zollverein, a customs union, in 1834.

Otto von Bismarck's Role:

Otto von Bismarck, appointed Chancellor of Prussia in 1862, spearheaded the unification process. Prussia, with its strong nationalism, formidable army, and developed economy, played a pivotal role. Bismarck expelled Austria from the German Confederation and unified the northern states.

Second Phase and Formation of the German Empire:

In the second phase,

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Medieval Society, Culture, Art, and Architecture

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Medieval Society

Society was divided into privileged and non-privileged estates:

  • Privileged Estates: Nobility and clergy. Members were subject to different laws than the rest.
  • Non-privileged Estates: People who weren't members of the clergy or nobility. Most were peasants, but there were also craftsmen, traders, etc.

Nobility

Nobles were dedicated to fighting wars.

  • Higher Nobility: Consisted of dukes, marquises, counts, etc. They were vassals of the king and lords of other vassals of lower rank. They lived in castles, collected taxes, and administered justice in their fiefs.

Clergy

There were two different groups of clergy:

  • Secular Clergy: Priests that depended on a bishop.
  • Regular Clergy: Members of a religious order who lived in a monastery.
  • Higher
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Ancient Civilizations and World History Quiz

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1. What do we call South America, Central America and North America?

A. The Americas

2. What is between Russia and Alaska?

C. the Bering Strait

3. What is maize very similar to?

C. corn

4. What did the Olmecs use to make statues?

D. basalt

5. What did the Olmecs use to make balls?

D. rubber

6. Where did the Nok people live?

A. West Africa

7. Which people built the city of Monte Albán?

A. Zapotec

8. Which people started a civilization on the Yucatan península?

D. Maya

9. Which city name means “City of the Gods”?

C. Teotihuacan

10. What did the Olmecs use to make statues?

basalt

11. Which people settled in Normandy?

Vikings

12. What do historians call the early part of the Middle Ages?

Dark Ages

13. Who was the ruler of Gaul in 768 AD?

A. Roland B. Charlemagne... Continue reading "Ancient Civilizations and World History Quiz" »

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2. The legal regime of State Symbols. IN UKTRAINE

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WHAT IS DECOLONIZATION?

The process of dismantlement (taking apart) of the Existing colonial empires

And the independence of their colonies that happened in 1945. It affected more Than 50 countries and around 1500 Million people.

CAUSES OF DECOLONIZATION

WWII
Nationalist movements
Emergence of charismatic leaders
International support

WHO SUPPORTER DECOLONIZATION ?

intellectuals, Christian churches, international Humanitarian movement
United Nations

WHAT WAS THE MARSHALL PLAN? HOW WAS EUROPE AFFECTED?
A rescue and reconstruction plan based on grants and loans for Europe
That was in ruins after WWII. USA sought new markets and wanted to avoid
Social unrest which might favor communism in Europe.
Europe received 25,000 million dollars and USA intervened

WHO

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Navigation

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STUARTS (17th): James I (religious hopes, war w spain, settlements). Charles I (wars, money to P, petition of rights, personal rule, ship money, Laud anglican episcopacy in scotland, war, Civil War 1642, cromwell win, rump P) cromwell: common wealth (1649-1653): rump abolish monarchy, active foreign policy, 1st dutch war navigation act, dissatisfaction with P, Protectorate (1653-1659). Charles II (promise to let P, france power, treaty with Louis 14, P refuse, shaftesbury, whigs, tory). James II (wanted Eng catholic, Mary and william of Orange (glorious rev, bill of rights).
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The Development of World War I: Causes, Alliances, and Trench Warfare

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The Development of World War I

1914 was a new crisis in the Balkans which damaged Europe.

The outbreak of conflict

The Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian crown was assassinated by a Bosnian Serb nationalist terrorist group called Black Hand. Austria declared war on Serbia, starting the game of alliances between central powers and triple entente. The working class was pacifist and anti-war, everything happened so fast and they decided to go to war. Those who were opposed were persecuted and punished.

War of movement and trench warfare

The Schlieffen plan decided to attack against Paris invading Belgium. The Germans wanted to invade France but the French army managed to stop the advance in the Battle of the Marne. German strategy had failed,... Continue reading "The Development of World War I: Causes, Alliances, and Trench Warfare" »

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English Literature: Revolution, Commonwealth & Restoration (1640-1688)

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MA 4: Key Periods and Concepts

Revolution (1640-1653)

Beginning with the Long Parliament, this era saw the beheading of King Charles I. Religious problems became politically charged, leading to a separation and confrontation between Royalists and Republicans. Theaters closed as a form of repression, and poetics shifted towards a Plainstyle.

The Commonwealth (1649-1659)

This republic, also known as the Protectorate, ruled England, Ireland, and Scotland. Diverse political and religious groups, characterized by radicalism, emerged. Literature grappled with the question of social order. The Protestant idea of 'inner light' as God's grace became politically significant.

The Restoration (1660-1688)

The Stuart monarchy returned with Charles II and later... Continue reading "English Literature: Revolution, Commonwealth & Restoration (1640-1688)" »

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The Communist World (1945-1982): Characteristics, Countries, and Tensions

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The Communist World (1945-1982)

General Characteristics

  • Political System: Dictatorship of the proletariat. The common interest was prioritized over individual rights and freedom.
  • Countries established institutions that merged executive and legislative powers, allowing only the existence of a single party: the communist party.
  • Economy: Controlled by the state.
    • Collectivized land
    • Nationalized industry and services
    • Controlled the market and prices
  • Economic Performance:
    • 1945-1960: Recovered from the war crisis.
    • Post-1960: Economic slowdown due to:
      • Low productivity
      • Lack of economic incentives
      • Technological backwardness compared to the West
      • Lack of consumer products leading to rationing
  • Communist Society:
    • In theory: Egalitarian and classless.
    • In practice: Significant
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