Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Conditional Sentences

Zero - Permanent actions

If (Pr. S), (Pr. S)

If we heat water to 100C, it boils.

1rst - Probable actions

(Will + V) if (Pr S.)

We'll go boating if it doesn't rain

2nd - Unlikely or imaginary actions

(If + Past. S), (Would + V)

If I won the lotto, I would buy a house

3rd - Impossible actions

(Would have + Participle) if (Past Perfect)

You would have met Kevin if you had come to the cinema with us

Reported Speech

DIRECT SPEECH                                                 INDIRECT SPEECH

PR. SIMPLE                                                         PS. SIMPLE

He said, "I want to watch a film"         He said that he wanted to watch a film

PR. CONTINUOUS                

Present Simple

• Active: She eats apples
• Passive: Apples are eaten by her

Present Continuous

• Active: He is eating oranges
• Passive: Oranges are being eaten by him

Past Simple

• Active: I bought a mobile phone last week
• Passive: A mobile phone was bought by me last week

Past Continuous

• Active: My brother was cleaning his car
• Passive: His car was being cleaned by my brother

Present Perfect

• Active: My mother has cooked a cake
• Passive: A cake has been cooked by my mother

Past Perfect

• Active: They had climbed a mountain
• Passive: A mountain had been climbed by them

Past Perfect Continuous

• Active: He had been listening to music
• Passive: Music had been being listened to by her

Future

• Active: I will sing a song
• Passive: A song will be sung by me

Future Perfect

• Active: I'm going

An Analysis of Juan Rulfo's Pedro Páramo

A Landmark of Magical Realism

Pedro Páramo is the singular novel by acclaimed Mexican writer Juan Rulfo. Published in 1955, it stands as a seminal work within the genre of magical realism and is widely regarded as one of the finest achievements in Latin American literature.

Themes and Setting

The novel vividly captures the essence of rural life in Mexico during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Rulfo masterfully portrays the profound economic and social changes experienced by peasants, many of whom were forced to migrate from their villages and farms to live in miserable city suburbs.

The narrative is remarkable for several reasons: In the desolate, dusty town of Comala, only living ghosts...

Popular Cultural Positions

Different cultures worldwide adopt various stances when encountering others. Understanding these positions is crucial.

Ethnocentrism: Judging by One's Own Culture

Ethnocentrism involves evaluating and interpreting other cultures based on the standards and characteristics of one's own culture. This can lead to:

• Difficulty understanding different lifestyles due to cultural differences.
• A strengthening of one's own cultural cohesion, potentially fostering a feeling of superiority over others.

Consequences of strong ethnocentric feelings can include:

• Xenophobia: Hatred or fear of foreigners or strangers.
• Racism: Prejudice or discrimination based on race.
• Chauvinism: Blind or excessive patriotism.
• Aporophobia: Hatred or aversion

The European Society of the Old Regime

The Old Regime in Europe was characterized by an aristocratic social structure, legal privileges, and a rigid social division into three estates: the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Third Estate (commoners).

The first two estates held significant privileges, while the vast majority of the population, the Third Estate, engaged in productive activities and struggled for survival. This society was fundamentally based on inherited inequality, favoring a privileged minority.

Social Dynamics in 18th Century Europe

During the 18th century, Europe witnessed the rise of the bourgeoisie, whose tastes and values began to challenge and even dominate aristocratic norms.

The Nobility

• Privileges by Birth: Nobles enjoyed extensive

Filming

Continuity: ensuring that the details of a scene (e.g. hair style and length, clothing details, prop positions) match and make sense when moving from one shot to another.

Noun: A noun is a word that identifies a person, animal, place, thing, or idea.

Concrete nouns are the names of things or people that we experience through our senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, or taste. Most nouns are concrete nouns.

For example:

Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns.

Nouns name people, places, and things.

Abstract nouns cannot be detected by your five senses. You cannot see them, hear them, smell them, taste them, or feel them. Examples include dedication, destruction, curiosity, happiness, intelligence, and loyalty.

Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific, one-of-a-kind items, and they begin with capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence.

A noun is a word...

1931–1933: The Rise of Global Instability

• 1931: Spain proclaims the Second Republic; Germany suspends compensation payments; Japan annexes Manchuria; El Salvador experiences a coup.
• 1932: Engelbert Dollfuss forms the Austrian government; Commonwealth meeting in Canada; Oliveira Salazar becomes Prime Minister of Portugal; Gandhi begins a hunger strike in India.
• 1933: Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany; the League of Nations warns Japan regarding aggression in China; Greece and Turkey sign a Non-Aggression Pact; a coup occurs in Cuba.

1934–1936: Escalation and Expansion

• 1934: France forms a left-wing coalition against fascism; the USSR joins the League of Nations; China experiences the Long March; Lázaro Cárdenas becomes President of

The Beginnings of Industrialization in Spain

The Catalan Textile Industry

The Catalan textile industry, despite its early growth, faced significant disruptions. Global market dynamics, including increased production from mills in India, and conflicts like the Peninsular War (active in 1808) severely hampered its expansion.

The Process of Mechanization

By 1830, the first steam engines were being established. The rapid mechanization of spinning was driven by several factors, notably the relative scarcity of labor entering the market. This labor shortage pushed up wages at a time when capital was abundant, making mechanization an attractive investment.

Mechanization led to a substantial reduction in production costs and selling prices. This, combined...

The Nephron: Structure and Function

The nephron is the functional and anatomical unit of the kidneys. It is responsible for filtering the blood and reabsorbing essential substances.

Nephron Parts:

1. Bowman's Capsule: The end of the nephron is cup-shaped and surrounds a network of capillaries called the glomerulus. The glomerulus is connected to an afferent arteriole (input) and an efferent arteriole (output).
2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Named for its serpentine appearance.
3. Loop of Henle: A narrowed area of the proximal tubule, with a descending and an ascending branch.
4. Distal Convoluted Tubule: A continuation of the loop of Henle, it connects with the collecting duct.

The collecting duct empties into the renal pelvis.

Urine Formation

Urine formation takes...