Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Historical Context of the 17th Century

The 17th century was a period of economic and demographic crisis, marked by the Baroque era and the rise of rationalism.

Economic Situation

Several European countries, including Spain and Portugal, established colonial empires. While initially boosting economic development through trade, wars, plagues, and poor harvests led to a widespread economic crisis that impacted society and culture.

Political Situation

During this century, Europe experienced a continued centralization of political power, leading to the rise of absolute monarchy. Kings concentrated all power, supported by the aristocracy (socially) and the bourgeoisie (economically). This era is known as the Old Regime.

Social Status

The 17th century was...

1.4) Economic Development under Franco (1939-1959)

1.4.1) Self-Sufficiency & Liberalization (to 1959)

Until 1959, the Spanish economy was marked by stagnation and a focus on agriculture. The 1959 Stabilization Plan initiated economic expansion.

a) Autarky, Stagnation, and Rationing (1939-1951)

Economic policy aimed for self-sufficiency. The primary goal was to prevent famine.

• Agricultural Policy: Focused on production recovery and returning expropriated land.
• Industrial Policy: The 1941 National Institute of Industry aimed to boost basic industries, hindered by resource and equipment shortages.

Autarky and interventionism led to:

• Emphasis on light industry over basic industry.
• Increased monopolies.
• Significant state investment.

b) Beginning of Liberalization

Nihilism and the Transmutation of Values

Nihilism is the direct result of the Death of God, producing profound disorientation in humanity. It involves the dissolution of traditional values and everything that previously anchored man to a divine order.

Man perceives life as meaningless because the foundations he once believed in have been revealed as false. This realization leads to despair, a state characterized as passive nihilism.

Against this, Nietzsche proposes active nihilism: the deliberate destruction of old values. Driven by a strong will to power, active nihilism seeks the liberation of man, focusing his energy entirely on this world.

To overcome nihilism, one must achieve the transmutation of values. This process culminates in the arrival...

Plato's Ethical Conception of Mathematical Ideas

In The Republic, Plato presents an ethical conception of mathematical ideas. He posits that mathematical ideas exist, and since mathematics is considered a form of rational knowledge, it must have a purpose. This aligns with the existence of ethical ideas, or value-ideas (goodness, beauty, value), which are objects of philosophical knowledge. Plato believed that ideas are interconnected through the idea of property. The idea of good serves as both a cause and a final cause. By introducing a final cause, Plato breaks from the previous mechanistic view and opens the door to a teleological explanation of the world, later developed by Aristotle. This perspective suggests that everything that exists...

The Rivalries Between the Major European Powers

France and Germany

In the 20th century, relations between France and Germany were strained due to French territorial claims over Alsace and Lorraine, lost in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Economic rivalries also fueled the tension. The growth of trade and financial relations between Great Britain and Germany sometimes sparked competition for new markets. Germany believed that to sustain its rapid industrial development, it needed to expand into new markets and establish a colonial empire.

British mistrust of Germany stemmed partly from the latter's naval policy, which aimed to create a powerful navy to rival Britain's.

The Formation of Blocs and the Arms Race

Starting in 1907, the major European...

The Pre-Socratic Philosophers

The Milesians (Monists: One Arché)

• Thales: Considered the first Milesian thinker, he proposed that the Arché (the fundamental principle) is water. He reasoned this based on observations: solid land seemingly floats on water, water reflects the heavens, and water in its gaseous state forms clouds.
• Anaximander: Believed the Arché to be the Apeiron (the boundless or infinite), a substance in perpetual motion, from which opposing forces (hot-dry, like stars; cold-wet, like Earth) arise. He also proposed that living beings evolved from fish.
• Anaximenes: Identified air as the Arché, a limitless substance that transforms through condensation and rarefaction.

Pythagoreans

The Pythagoreans believed that number is the Arché....

Primo de Rivera's Coup d'État

On September 13, 1923, **Primo de Rivera** led a military coup, agreed upon and supported by the king, the church, conservative political parties, employer organizations, and Catholic unions. The reasons were diverse and included the social environment of violence, the radicalization of Catalan nationalism, and the discrediting of the parliamentary system.

The Crisis of the Canovas System

Since 1917, it was clear that the Canovas system was unable to accommodate the new political and social forces. This crisis was framed within a context in which Europe was also in crisis due to the weakening of liberal policies, the discontent of the population due to the impossibility of reforming political systems, and an exalted...

The Roman Education System: Foundations

Early education, significantly influenced by Greek practices, often began within the family. Teachers, known as magistri, imparted a variety of lessons. The Roman educational system progressed through distinct stages:

• Primary Education: Taught by the litterator.
• Secondary Education: Led by the grammaticus.
• Higher Education: Guided by the rhetor.

Higher education often involved a year or two of intensive oratorical practice. Young men typically concluded their formal studies upon reaching the age of majority.

Primary Education: The Litterator's School

During the late Roman Republic and throughout the Empire, primary education typically began for children aged 7 to 11. While some wealthy families employed private...

Baroque Culture in Spain

Patronage and Official Culture: During this period, the monarchy and privileged groups devoted themselves to patronage. Official culture was primarily in the hands of universities and colleges. There were also smaller gatherings in colleges and academies focused on artistic and scientific matters.

However, as most of the population was illiterate, information was transmitted orally and visually. This explains the rise of religious instruction through sermons, images, and festivals. In science, Spain did not experience much progress; only at the end of the 17th century were there some notable movements.

Baroque Festivities

Court festivals were organized to exalt the power of the nobility. Religious festivities included *...

Active and Passive Voice Tense Transformations

Active Voice vs. Passive Voice Examples:

• Present Simple: Active: They love | Passive: They are loved
• Present Continuous: Active: They are loving | Passive: They are being loved
• Past Simple: Active: They loved | Passive: They were loved
• Past Continuous: Active: They were loving | Passive: They were being loved
• Present Perfect: Active: They have loved | Passive: They have been loved
• Past Perfect: Active: They had loved | Passive: They had been loved
• Future (Will): Active: They will love | Passive: They will be loved
• Future (Going To): Active: They are going to love | Passive: They are going to be loved

Future Continuous and Future Perfect Tenses

Future Continuous Structure

Formula: WILL + BE + V-ING

Example:...