Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

Madrid: Historical Urban Evolution

The Capital Shift and Early Growth (1561–1750)

In 1561, the capital moved from Toledo to Madrid. The Regalia de Aposento was introduced as a new law for court member accommodation, leading to the creation of "Las casas de la malicia" (Trick Houses). The city experienced significant population growth:

• 1561: 12,700 people
• 1571: 42,000 people
• 1618: 108,000 people
• 1850: 220,000 people

Key developments included the Felipe IV wall in 1625 (the boundary of the Teixeira map) and urban improvements between 1600 and 1750, such as the Buen Retiro, the Town Hall, and new urban promenades.

Monumental Transformation and Squares

Carlos III (1759–1771) oversaw a major urban and monumental transformation led by architects Ventura

Islamic Architecture: Mosques and Sacred Spaces

Mosque Elements and Orientation

• Praying Room: A sacred space, even if not considered the physical "House of Allah."
• Orientation (Qibla): East orientation towards Mecca for prayer.
• Minbar: The pulpit, the seat of the Imam.
• Minaret: A tower used to call the Muslim community to prayer.
• Mihrab: A semicircular niche indicating the Qibla wall facing Mecca.
• Maqsura: A safe space located in front of the Mihrab, historically reserved for Caliphs and Emirs.
• Ablutions Area: Space designated for ritual cleansing before prayer.

Parts of a Mosque Complex

• Ziyada: The enclosure space.
• Sahn: The central courtyard or patio.
• Sapil: A public fountain.
• Haram: The roofed prayer space.

Early Examples

House of Muhammad in Medina (7th

Asturian Architecture (9th Century)

San Julian de los Prados

• Structure: 3 naves inscribed in a rectangle with a basilica scheme.
• Features: 3-parted head covered with barrel vaults, Visigothic precedents, Roman arches, and semicircular arches.
• Design: Includes a narthex and interior mural decoration featuring fake arches without human figures.

Santa Maria de Naranco, Oviedo

• Structure: Compact stone volume with an inclined roof and two independent floors.
• Aesthetics: Rhythmical, vertical appearance with symmetrical floorplan.
• Details: Upper room with barrel vaults and transversal arches, buttresses, blind arches for lightness, and Corinthian capitals.

Mozarabic Architecture (10th Century)

Refers to Spanish-Roman citizens living in Andalusia during the

Construction System and Composition

The construction system is defined by arches that generate a second direction, with wooden beams on the ceiling made wider to provide support. Arches are positioned perpendicular to the Qibla, utilizing semicircular arches to support the structure alongside Corinthian capitals. The materials consist of grey and red bricks. Key components include:

• Beam-Wooden Roof Board
• Roof evacuation channel
• Plaster false edges vault
• Semicircular arch
• Rectangular pillar
• Horseshoe codal arch
• Roll modillion

Decoration and Structural Logic

Decoration features vegetal, geometrical, and calligraphic motives. The section of the pillar becomes wider to make it higher; otherwise, the columns would collapse, which is the primary reason for... Continue reading "Islamic Architecture in Al-Andalus: Umayyad to Nasrid" »

The Role of Speaking in Primary Education

• Vocabulary for basic concepts: Ensure students leave their first lesson with some English to "take away."
• Greetings and introductions.
• English names: People and countries.
• Chants, rhymes, and songs: Impression learning quickly to show off.
• Drills.
• Aim: To heighten children's awareness of language and to build up their confidence.
• Formulaic language: Language that is produced as whole chunks; routines or patterns that children memorize and which enable them to communicate with a minimum of linguistic competence. This includes:
  • Simple greetings
  • Social English
  • Routines
  • Classroom language
  • Asking for permission
  • Communication strategies

The Role of L1 in the Primary Classroom

• As a last resort: Try to make children understand

The Concept of Law: Objective and Subjective

The law is traditionally taught in two senses. It can be understood in an objective sense, as the rule of law addressed to recipients to prescribe or impose a certain behavior. Alternatively, it can be understood in the subjective sense, as the possibilities for citizens to exercise powers for the satisfaction of certain interests, according to their own devices.

Technical Structure of Subjective Rights

• Subject: The presence of a subject is required for every right; that is, the person to whom the power belongs when the law is applied. The quality of the membership of the subjective right to a particular person is the title.
• Object: This is the holder of the outside world on which their power rests.

Historical Foundations of English Literature

The English language roots trace back to Old English (until 1066) and Middle English (until 1485), which was heavily influenced by French.

Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture

Anglo-Saxon art was marginalized after the Norman Conquest, though archaeological findings reveal a sophisticated culture. Principal materials included gold used in war jewelry. Symbolism was deeply rooted in paganism and nature.

• Snakes: Represented monstrous evil and divine power.
• Boars: Symbolized fertility, strength, and protection.
• Birds: Represented wisdom and victory (associated with Odin).

Anglo-Saxon kings resided in wooden palaces and imported materials from around the world.

Old English Epics and Elegies

Epics are defined as narratives... Continue reading "Anglo-Saxon and Medieval English Literature: A Historical Analysis" »

Lesson 6: Responsible Business Clauses

6.1 ESG in Contracts

Why Include ESG Clauses?

Investors and buyers demand them; they protect the brand, ensure compliance with regulatory law, and follow OECD/UNGP recommendations.

Risk-Based Due Diligence

Due diligence must be based on risk. It involves identifying, preventing, and mitigating ESG risks in supply chains and operations (activities).

CISG Compliance

Include these in Article 35 quality standards; if the party does not comply with ESG, HRDD, or ABC standards, they are considered non-conforming. You must specify these clearly, ensuring they are measurable and auditable. They also need to be foreseeable under Article 74.

UNIDROIT Principles

These principles help clarify and execute contracts correctly:... Continue reading "Integrating ESG and Responsible Business Clauses" »

Understanding Inheritance in Python

Inheritance allows a class to use and extend the properties and methods of another class. It promotes code reusability and reduces duplication. Think of it as “child learns from parent.” 👨‍👦‍💻

Code Duplication: Program Without Inheritance

When classes share common attributes or methods (such as first_name, last_name, and get_age), implementing them separately leads to redundant code, as shown below:

import datetime

class TennisPlayer:
    def __init__(self, fname, lname, birth_year):
        self.first_name = fname
        self.last_name = lname
        self.birth_year = birth_year
        self.aces = []

    def get_age(self):
        now = datetime.datetime.now()
        return now.year -

C++ Pointer and Array Operations

This collection demonstrates fundamental C++ techniques for handling pointers, arrays, and memory management.

Core Functions

void squareByPointer(int* n) { 
    *n = (*n) * (*n);
}

void capitalizeFirst(char* word) { 
    word[0] = toupper(word[0]);
}

void fillWithSquares(int* arr, int size) {
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        arr[i] = i * i;
}

int sumArray(const int* arr, int size) {
    int sum = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        sum += arr[i];
    return sum;
}

void swap(int& a, int& b) {
    int temp = a;
    a = b;
    b = temp;
}

int* makeFilledArray(int size, int val) {
    int* arr = new int[size];
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        arr[i] = val;
    return