Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Although discussions about production and distribution have a long history, economic science in its modern sense, as a separate discipline, is conventionally dated from the publication of The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith in 1776.^[7] In it, he describes the discipline in these exact words:

Political economy, considered a branch of science of a statesman or legislator, proposes two distinct objects: first, to supply goods or income in abundance for the people, or more properly, to enable them to provide such a revenue or subsistence for themselves; and, second, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services. It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign.

Smith referred to the subject as "political... Continue reading "The Birth of Modern Economics: Physiocracy and its Principles" »

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a discipline founded by Sigmund Freud, and within it, one can distinguish three levels:

• A) A research method that essentially brings evidence of the unconscious meaning of words, actions, and imaginary productions (dreams, fantasies, delusions) of an individual.
• B) A psychotherapeutic method based on this research and characterized by the interpretation of resistance, transference, and desire.
• C) A set of psychological and psychopathological theories that systematize the data provided by the psychoanalytic method of investigation and treatment.

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image.

• Repression:

Administrative Structure and Action Plans for Refugees

Bodies Responsible for Refugee Assistance:

• The Interministerial Committee for Asylum and Refugees
• Area Centers and Refugee Programs managed by IMSERSO
• Refugee Reception Centers

IMSERSO Care Program Strands

The IMSERSO develops a comprehensive care program for asylum seekers, refugees, and displaced persons, focusing on the following areas:

• Attention at airports, ports, and border crossings, including emergency housing. IMSERSO operates 4 shelters providing essential social care services.
• Social integration of refugees and displaced persons through community programs (e.g., GEAR and EQUAL).
• Global actions, including publishing, information dissemination, and guidance services.

Fundamental Deficits

Unit 7: The Second Spanish Republic

7.1 Social Problems and the Constitution of 1931

Following the resignation of Primo de Rivera, King Alfonso XIII commissioned General Dámaso Berenguer to form a government to restore the 1876 system. On August 17, 1930, the Pact of San Sebastián was signed, establishing an interim government to implement the Republic and grant autonomy to Catalonia. After Berenguer resigned, Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar attempted to restore constitutional normality through elections, which the Republicans won decisively. Consequently, Alfonso XIII went into exile in Rome.

The new Constitution was approved by the Cortes on December 9, 1931. It was a progressive, non-conservative document. Its most important features included:... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: History, Reforms, and Conflict" »

The Peace of the Victors

The peace process involved the victors (Britain, France, USA, and Italy) and excluded the defeated nations and Russia. The U.S. position advocated for peace based on universal principles, including law, justice, respect for nationalities, freedom of commerce, disarmament, and democracy. Conversely, the European powers prioritized their own national interests and demanded significant compensation from the losers.

Treaties of Peace

• Treaty of Versailles (Germany): Established sole responsibility for the war.
  • Territorial Terms: Return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, eastern Poland to Russia, and distribution of African colonies among the victors.
  • Economic Regulations: Payment of reparations, 15-year control of coal mines,

The European Parliament (EP)

The European Parliament (EP) is a constitutional institution in the European Union (EU) that directly represents EU citizens. It is elected every five years by universal, direct, and secret vote of European citizens in European elections.

Role and Democratic Nature of the EP

The EP is the most democratic parliament in the world and, within the European Union, the only supranational body that is directly elected. The Parliament is considered the "first institution" of the European Union; it is first mentioned in the treaties, and its President takes protocol precedence over all other authorities in Europe. Along with the Council of the European Union, the EP is part of the bicameral legislative branch of EU institutions.... Continue reading "Structure and Functions of European Union Institutions" »

The Concept of Race

Race refers to groups of individuals exhibiting greater genetic similarity among themselves than with members of other groups. The concept of race historically stemmed from the idea that physical differences, such as skin color or dress, arose from adaptations to diverse climates and environments. In the nineteenth century, these observable physical distinctions led scientists to believe humanity could be subdivided into distinct races.

Defining Racism

Racism is the assumption that there are inherently superior and inferior human races. Historically, perceived 'superior' races were attributed with qualities like intelligence, while 'inferior' races were denied such attributes.

Understanding Culture

The notion of culture encompasses... Continue reading "Human Race, Culture, and Societal Dynamics" »

School Board: Representative Democracy

Draft Downtown. This section focuses on representative democracy and political autonomy within the school-community framework.

Key Responsibilities of the School Board

• a) Approve and evaluate projects and standards referred to in Chapter II of Title V of this Law.
• b) Approve and evaluate the annual general programming of the center, without prejudice to the powers of the faculty in conjunction with planning and teaching organization.
• c) Review the candidates for the leadership and management projects submitted by applicants.
• d) Participate in the selection of the center under the terms this Act provides. Be informed of the appointment and dismissal of other members of the team. Where appropriate, the agreement

Political System and Social Foundations

Introduction to the Bourbon Restoration

During the Sexenio Revolucionario, the Conservative politician Antonio Cánovas del Castillo prepared the restoration of the monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII. Cánovas convinced Queen Isabella II to abdicate her rights to the throne in favor of her son. He created a monarchist party and, finally, on December 1, 1874, drafted the Manifesto of Sandhurst. In this document, Prince Alfonso promised that, if named King of Spain, he would implement a parliamentary constitutional regime and a stable order based on patriotism and doctrinaire liberalism.

Cánovas and the Constitution of 1876

During the revolutionary period, Cánovas banked on the idea of the restoration... Continue reading "Political System of the Spanish Restoration" »

**Early Communication Development: 9 to 24 Months**

**Communicative Functions at 9-12 Months (Halliday, 1982)**

• Instrumental: The child attempts to obtain an object out of reach by gesturing and emphasizing the action with body rhythm, repeating the gesture with corresponding vocalizations.
• Regulatory: The child wants the adult to perform a specific action, such as being picked up or having a door opened.
• Interactive: The child tries to maintain contact with what interests them. This includes rituals of greeting, farewell, beginning, and end.
• Personal: The child expresses their individuality through rejection in response to others' proposals or participation, indicating satisfaction or interest in the partner's proposals.

**Communicative Functions