Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Political Organization and Institutions of Spain

The freedoms and rights afforded by the Constitution are broad, including the right to life, equality before the law, and freedom of expression. Sovereignty resides in the Spanish people.

The Spanish state is a democratic welfare state governed by the rule of law, configured as a parliamentary monarchy. Its primary institutions include:

• Cortes Generales: The legislative body, consisting of two chambers elected by universal suffrage. Its functions include making laws, approving budgets, and controlling the Government.
• Government: The executive body, composed of a president, a vice president, and ministers. Its functions include enforcing laws and conducting internal and external policies.
• Courts of

The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812

The Central Board prepared the process for calling the Cortes, setting up committees that collected information on the country's situation. When power was transferred to the Regency Council, the process continued according to liberal principles: the Cortes would be unicameral, representing the nation rather than traditional estates, and their primary goal was to draft a constitution.

Representatives of the nation were invited to an extraordinary session of the Cortes in Cádiz, a city free of French occupation. Deputies were chosen by provincial boards or attended as substitutes due to the difficulty of travel during the war.

Composition and Political Factions of the Cortes

The deputies met in a... Continue reading "The Cortes of Cádiz and Spain's First Constitution (1812)" »

Unit 2: The Spanish Constitution - Parts IV to X

2.1 Title IV: Government and Public Administration

Function of the Government

The Government is the body that directs domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration, and the defense of the state. It exercises executive and statutory authority under the Constitution and laws.

Composition of the Government

The Government consists of the President, one or more Vice Presidents, Ministers, and other members established by law.

Cessation of the Government

The Government is constituted through the process of approving its President and ceases by:

• General election (every four years)
• Early dissolution of the Cortes (Parliament)
• Loss of parliamentary confidence (motion of censure or vote of confidence)

Historical Context of the 17th Century

Following the Renaissance (15th and 16th centuries), the 17th century witnessed the emergence of the modern world across all levels of society. This period was marked by significant transformations in several key areas:

Economic Developments

There was substantial growth in trade and manufacturing. Early productive capital began to shift, gradually transforming feudal serfs into wage laborers, moving away from the guild system.

Political Landscape

Absolutist states, the first form of the modern state, dominated Europe, displacing feudal fiefs. Nobles were subjected to the absolute monarch (the sovereign), who, in turn, depended on lenders to finance the considerable costs of the centralized state. This included... Continue reading "17th-Century Transformation: Society, Science, Ideology" »

Key Historical Terms

Definitions: T7

• Music Economics: The Carlists pay a certain amount that would be collected by the provincial councils.
• Zanjón Peace: Spain promised Cuba a broad amnesty, the abolition of slavery, and political and administrative reforms.
• Electoral Fraud: Cheating coalitions, manipulations, and falsifications of the electoral census records.
• Peace of Paris: Spain ceded Cuba, and Jalal sold in Germany to the U.S. and the Pacific Marianas and the Carolines.
• Closure Cases: Boycott of the taxes imposed by Villaverde.

T8

• Federal Tortosa Pact: The federal Crown of Aragon wanted a federal state.
• Greuges Memorial: Unit of Catalan political manifesto.

T9

• Liga Agraria: Cerealistics Owners Association to act as a pressure group to achieve a

Newspapers: A Key Source of Information

A newspaper is a form of print media that informs the public about current events.

Features of a Newspaper

Newspapers are typically divided into sections. These sections include sports, entertainment, economy, opinion, and general information. The most important events are usually placed on the front page.

Newspaper Organization

Newspapers are generally organized with the front and back pages followed by national and international news.

Articles: Grammatical Components

An article is a type of word that precedes a noun, indicating whether it is specific or non-specific. Articles also denote the gender and number of the noun.

Article Classification

• Definite Articles: Used when the noun is known or specific.
• Neutral

Social Group Concepts

Tribus

An anthropological concept referring to joint families with a common patriarch.

Categorías

A more ambiguous term used to define a group of people related by certain characteristics (e.g., property can be a category).

Estamentos

Typical of the Middle Ages (e.g., the nobility, the clergy).

Clases sociales

A term coined by philosopher Karl Marx to designate different social groups and their role in relation to their level or means of production. Today, its strict sense has diminished as division is less simple. While the term capitalism is sometimes used loosely, sociology often uses concepts like middle class, lower class, and upper class.

Clan

A group of people with a head, often linked by an economic relationship. For example,

Manifesto of the Congress of Munich (1962)

Summary of the 1962 Munich Congress Manifesto

This document was presented at the conference held in Munich in 1962, involving members representing all shades of opposition to the Franco regime. The fundamental idea of the text is the establishment of a democratic system in Spain. The Manifesto required the following essential policy changes:

• Genuinely representative institutions elected by the citizens.
• Respect for Human Rights and fundamental freedoms.
• Freedom of association and the right to strike.
• Creation of political parties and different schools of thought.

Key Vocabulary and Concepts

Congress of the European Movement

This meeting, held in Munich in 1962, was convened by the European Movement (a platform... Continue reading "Munich Congress 1962: Demands for Democracy in Franco's Spain" »

Chapter IX: Environmental Rights

Article 124: Protecting Intellectual Property and Collective Knowledge

Article 124 guarantees and protects intellectual property and collective knowledge.

Article 125: Indigenous Peoples' Right to Political Participation

Article 125 states that Indigenous peoples have the right to political participation.

Article 126: Indigenous Peoples as Part of the Nation

Article 126 affirms that Indigenous peoples, as cultures with ancestral roots, are part of the Nation.

Article 127: Environmental Protection as a Right and Duty

Article 127 establishes that it is a right and duty of each generation to protect and maintain the environment for its own benefit.

Article 128: State's Role in Environmental Planning

Article 128 mandates... Continue reading "Venezuela's Constitution: Indigenous Rights, Environment & Armed Forces" »

The Standard Language Variety

Language varieties have been created throughout history. A common variety, called a standard language, is one where dialect differences are poorly marked. Historically, this variety has been more associated with written communication than oral; however, it currently serves as a model for written language, oral communication, and mass media.

The standard variety is characterized by:

• Having a norm (or 'law') which serves as a reference model for speakers.
• Adapting to the changes that users can introduce.
• Presenting different rules or sub-norms based on the speech of educated speakers from various dialects.
• Being disseminated through institutions such as the Royal Spanish Academy, education, and communication media.

It is... Continue reading "Language Varieties and Communication Registers" »