Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Industrial Society: Classes Emerge

The old estate society gave way to class society, mainly structured into two main groups: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie became the hegemonic group, owning the industries and businesses. There was a large middle class composed of bankers, investors, and owners. There was also a semi-liberal bourgeoisie made up of professionals, officials, and traders. Below this, a large number of employees and shopkeepers formed the petty bourgeoisie.

Sometimes mixing with the old nobility, the bourgeoisie became the center of social life. Richly decorating their homes with domestic servants, their dress, entertainment, and values were imposed as the social model to imitate.

The

The War of Independence: Background and Conflict

Background

The conflict began following the Abdication of Bayonne. After popular mutinies, Joseph Bonaparte was installed as King of Spain by France, leading to widespread insurrection.

Sides of the Conflict

• Pro-French Faction: Joseph Bonaparte, supported by Francophiles (opportunists and enlightened modernizers).
• Spanish Insurrectionists: Supported three main groups backing Ferdinand VII:
  • Liberals (desiring a liberal monarchy).
  • Absolutists (desiring absolute monarchy).

Development of the War

Rebellious zones organized local anti-French governing bodies:

• Local boards (nobility and clergy).
• Provincial and Central Supreme Juntas (managed the war and governed the country).
• The Regency Council in Cadiz (acted

Modern Literary Visionaries

H.G. Wells: Science, Progress, and Utopia

A new faith was still needed, and H.G. Wells found one in what may be called Liberalism: the belief that humanity's future lies on Earth, not in heaven, and that, with scientific and social progress, an earthly paradise could eventually be built. Wells is one of the great figures of modern literature.

His works, including The Time Machine, The First Men in the Moon, The War of the Worlds, The Invisible Man, When the Sleeper Awakes, and The Food of the Gods, are concerned not merely with telling strange and entertaining stories, but with demonstrating that, through science, everything is theoretically possible.

Wells sometimes described himself as a "utopiographer." He was always... Continue reading "Literary Giants: Wells, Forster, Yeats, and Synge" »

3 Political Developments in 19th Century Spain

As the civil war for the succession of Ferdinand VII began, the construction of a liberal Spain was simultaneously underway.

3.1 Moderate and Progressive Liberals

Liberals divided into two distinct trends—moderate and progressive—which defined the political landscape until 1868. Both factions accepted the constitution, limited suffrage, and individual political freedoms.

• Moderate Liberals: Believed in a blend of historical tradition and the liberal ideas of the French Revolution. This group comprised doceañista liberals and those who had separated from the exalted. Their main concern was to build a unitary, safe state with centralized management. They believed power should be controlled by the

Is it possible? This title may not be considered anything, but everyone's lips now are able to ask me to write about the text, and that way I will. Lasts! I almost forgot to say the title, *aix*.... Modernizing the Basque language is a question I addressed in this blog, i.e.
Basque is just peanuts for many, but to shit! They do not use anything, no friends, no home... anywhere! This text is aimed at those, there Tori!

Firstly, we need our own motivation to be able to speak Basque. Let's go there to make some changes, such as television. Only two channels are in Basque, and both are relatively boring. Well, yes! Something must have the following *pensatu*: Encouragement, *argitxoa* people between the eyes to light. But how? Is it possible?... Continue reading "Modernizing the Basque Language: A Call to Action" »

Historical Context of the 19th Century

The nineteenth century was defined by the Industrial Revolution and the final triumph of bourgeois revolutions. This era was marked by the rise of capitalism, the bourgeois state, and, particularly in Italy and Germany, unifying nationalism. Following the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna attempted to restore the old regime, yet the momentum of the bourgeois revolutions persisted, signaling the birth of a new society.

Social and Political Transformation

The process of industrialization fostered the emergence of a new social class: the proletariat. This shift gave rise to influential political and philosophical movements, including Marxism, Bakunin's anarchism, and various forms of socialism, which... Continue reading "The 19th Century: Industrialization, Marxism, and Modernity" »

The Industrial Revolution: A Historical Shift

The Industrial Revolution was a transformative process characterized by steady economic change that impacted all social sectors. It began in England during the mid-18th century.

Technical Shift: From Human to Machine Labor

• Energy Evolution: Initially powered by water, then transitioned to steam.
• Fuel Sources: Progressed from burning wood to utilizing coal and iron ore.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

• Political Stability: An entrepreneurial mentality and laws favorable to economic growth.
• Population Growth: Increased demand for both products and labor.
• Transport and Communications: Boosted trade and market expansion.
• Foreign Trade: Provided raw materials and new markets for industrial goods.
• Energy and

Early 20th Century European Society

Industrial Growth and Social Inequality

The early 20th century in Europe witnessed significant industrial growth, enriching the privileged bourgeois classes but also creating a deep societal divide. The First World War (1914-1918) further exacerbated this crisis of values. The euphoria of economic and technological progress fueled a consumer society, sheltering the new liberal capitalist system. However, this growth also widened the gap between the wealthy bourgeoisie and the exploited working class, leading to the rise of protest movements and ideologies like Anarchism, Socialism, and Communism.

Crisis of Faith and Reason

Key ideologies challenged positivism and rational thought, denouncing the perceived failures... Continue reading "Early 20th Century Europe: Societal Shifts and Ideological Conflicts" »

Single Electoral Divisions

Electoral systems often feature divisions within their territorial scope, where all votes are aggregated to implement the chosen electoral formula. This constituency structure is found in elections to the European Parliament, and also in local elections where each municipality serves as a constituency.

These constituencies may have different magnitudes. Districts with a minimum magnitude, often a single seat, are called single-member constituencies. When they are assigned more than one seat, they become multi-member constituencies. Multi-member constituencies can be categorized by the number of seats:

• Low-magnitude: 2 to 6 seats
• Average-size: 7 to 14 seats
• High-magnitude: Over 15 seats

Multiple Electoral Divisions

In systems... Continue reading "Electoral Systems: Divisions, Constituencies, and Gerrymandering" »

Marxism

Critique of Capitalism

• The core of the operation lies in the proletarian *surplus value* (plusvalía). This surplus value is the source of capitalist profits.
• Capitalists limit associationism and prevent improvements in working conditions.

Historical Materialism and Class Struggle

• The engine of history is the "struggle of classes" between oppressor and oppressed.
• History is a sequence of "modes of production," characterized by production relations between the owners of the means of production and those who only possess their labor.
• The transition from one system to another occurs when class contradictions destroy a mode of production and replace it with a new one.

The Communist Future

• When the proletariat acquires class consciousness, organized