Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

19th Century Europe: Societal Transformations

The 19th century witnessed a gradual shift away from a society based on the privileges of the clergy and nobility. While calls for freedom of work and marriage were gaining traction, the aristocracy still held significant power and privileges throughout the century.

Rise of the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat

The latter half of the 1800s saw the development of industry and commerce, leading to the bourgeoisie gaining prominence in political, social, economic, and cultural spheres. This period also marked the growth of a new urban and industrial proletariat. These workers, along with those in rural areas, formed a militant proletariat that often clashed with the bourgeois forces driving the new capitalist... Continue reading "19th Century Europe: Social Shifts and Romanticism" »

Technical Approach to Knowledge

• Objectivity of Science: Emphasizes scientific knowledge and methodology through objective measurement, precise categorization, and accurate operational definition of concepts.
• Social World as Independent Variables: Utilizes inductive epistemology, moving from concrete observations to abstract generalizations, focusing on observable variables and techniques.
• Universal Theory: Seeks to understand commonalities rather than specific or differential elements. Assumes the constancy of behavior across time and space.
• Formalized Knowledge: Relies on mathematical language for its universality.
• Technical Guidance for Scientific and Instrumental Action: Action is founded on criteria of rationality, explicitly excluding ethical,

Globalization and the Modern State

Globalization refers to the advances in communication technology that allow people to communicate with each other and gain an inside look at what is happening elsewhere in the world.

The Globalization Process

Globalization is considered a process because it has a specific beginning and a sequence of development.

Defining the State and Sovereignty

• State: Characterized by having a set of political institutions, governance, and administration through which it exercises its functions by enabling the development of society.
• Territory: A portion of the land surface over which a domain called real or effective sovereignty is exercised.
• Sovereignty: The real or effective control over a piece of land.
• Nation: A set of individuals

The shift from communal land use to private ownership, known as the Enclosure Acts, led many rural laborers to seek work in urban centers. This transition coincided with the mechanization of large farms, increasing productivity and profitability. By removing the fallow system, enclosed pastures further boosted agricultural output and farmer incomes. This agricultural development spurred industrial growth.

Economic Liberalism

Economic liberalism is an economic system characterized by private property, free enterprise, and free markets. Its theoretical foundation is rooted in the ideas of thinkers like Adam Smith.

Theoretical Basis of Economic Liberalism

Adam Smith argued that individual self-interest drives economic activity. He believed that wealth... Continue reading "The Enclosure Acts and Rise of Economic Liberalism" »

During the first months of the war, the power of the Republican state was fragmented among trade unions, political parties, and nationalist groups. Concurrently, a social revolution dominated most of the territory, which significantly weakened the authority of the Republican government.

Disintegration of Republican Power and Revolution

Between July and October 1936, power was distributed among multiple boards, committees, militias, revolutionary councils, and agencies. These entities, at regional, provincial, and local levels, supplanted the authority of the central government.

The absence of a single command hindered military operations. In Catalonia, popular power was exercised by the CNT-FAI. Armed militias organized the rear, managing transport,... Continue reading "Political Developments in the Republican Zone: War and Revolution" »

Psychic Nature of Political Power

The psychic aspect of political power, in the search for acceptance, lies in the conviction of the notion of legitimacy by those who are dominated. When power is legitimate, it is constituted in accordance with certain dominant beliefs. Therefore, there is not one single form of legitimacy (e.g., democracy, monarchy, communism).

Different Types of Political Power

According to Bertrand Russell

• Traditional: Where consent reigns.
• Revolutionary: Where ideology prevails.
• Naked: Where coercion prevails.

According to Maurice Duverger

• Immediate Power: Characteristic of primitive cities, with a fuzzy generalization of the entire group.
• Institutionalized Power: Subject to specific legal rules established for the purpose.

Issues

The territorial organization of a state refers to how power and territory relate within it.

Unitary Model

• Unitary: It arises in the French system as a reaction against the old regime, against the many centers of power. It tries to concentrate power in one center: there is only one state power. This motivates having a single executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The law is the same for all citizens, regardless of where they are in the territory. There is only one center of political leadership. The territorial organization is relevant only for administrative purposes.

Federal Model

• Federal: This model emerged from the independence of the British colonies of North America: the union of different states into one. There are several centers of

The Swedish Social Model

The Swedish model has been one of the paradigms of the European social model. The Swedish model has been characterized as a corporatist model, based on a compromise between classes, the hegemony of social democracy, and a high degree of institutionalization and juridification of industrial relations.

Collective Bargaining and Codetermination

Their collective bargaining system consists of the following levels:

• The private sector
• The public sector law
• Local administration

A determinant of codetermination law states that employers have to negotiate with union representatives any measure of importance affecting the company. This model is being affected by the internationalization strategies and flexible production of large enterprises.... Continue reading "Swedish and German Industrial Relations Systems" »

The Organization of Colonial Empires

Once exploited, colonies were conquered militarily to be administered directly by the metropolis. This resulted in political, economic, social, and cultural control over the colonized peoples.

Colonial Administration

Depending on the type of settlement, we can distinguish two different types of colonies:

• Exploitation colonies: These held a small population migrating from the metropolis and focused on the exploitation of their resources.
• Settlement colonies: The migrating European population enjoyed the same rights and privileges as the metropolitan citizens and imposed their rule on the local population.

The British Empire introduced a model of organization that was generalized to other colonial empires. Colonies... Continue reading "Colonial Empire Structures and Impact on Indigenous Peoples" »

Historical Context of Hume's Era

In the political landscape of Europe, the 18th century witnessed the emergence of enlightened monarchs. This period extended from the revolutions in the Netherlands, through the English Civil War, up to the French Revolution. This latter event established a new state, reflecting the bourgeoisie's economic power, which had grown strong enough to claim political and economic hegemony. This profound historical shift stemmed from the various discoveries of the Renaissance and, especially, the Scientific Revolution.

Sociocultural Context of Hume's Life

The sociocultural context of David Hume's life unfolded during the 18th century, a period known as the Enlightenment. This era was characterized by a tremendous process... Continue reading "David Hume's Philosophy: Historical, Sociocultural, and Philosophical Contexts" »