Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

The Political System of the Spanish Restoration

Cánovas del Castillo was the main leader of the party during the Sexenio Democrático (Six Democratic Years) who had defended the monarchical restoration. After the return of Alfonso XII, the Conservative Party became the primary political force, with the exception of the Carlists and Integrists. Cánovas's bipartisan draft required another party of a more progressive, left-leaning dynastic nature, which was proposed under Sagasta.

The Formation of the Dynastic Parties

From an agreement between progressives, unionists, and some moderate Republicans, the Liberal Party was born. Both parties performed the corresponding task of uniting various groups and factions, with the unique requirement of accepting... Continue reading "The Spanish Restoration: Cánovas, Sagasta, and Dynastic Power" »

The Evolution of Spanish Journalism (20th Century)

Journalism in Spain runs parallel to the nation's literary and political history. The 20th century can be divided into three distinct stages:

Stage 1: Birth of Mass Journalism (1900–1936)

This period saw the birth of mass journalism coexisting with older forms of political journalism. Initially, newspapers were highly partisan:

• Newspapers depended organically on the political parties that funded and staffed the newsrooms.
• Circulation was initially low.

The rise of mass journalism significantly increased the circulation of newspapers. The goal was to provide popular classes access to culture, political, and economic life through widespread journalistic dissemination.

Stage 2: Civil War and Francoist

The Bourbon Restoration in Spain

On 29 December 1874, General Martínez Campos led a pronunciamiento and proclaimed Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II, as King. This event ended the Sexenio Democrático and initiated the Bourbon Restoration, a historical stage that concluded in 1923 with the coup of Miguel Primo de Rivera. The foundations of the Restoration's political system were the Constitution of 1876, the Turno Pacífico (peaceful alternation of parties in power), and caciquismo.

The Spanish Constitution of 1876

The Constitution of 1876 established a constitutional monarchy and an elected parliament, which, since 1890, operated under universal male suffrage. However, many periods of deception left constitutional rights and freedoms without purpose;... Continue reading "The Bourbon Restoration and the 1876 Spanish Constitution" »

Immanuel Kant's Historical Context (18th Century)

Kant lived for much of the eighteenth century, a period of relative calm following the previous era called the Wars of Religion and preceding a series of Revolutionary Wars (American and French). In this interwar period, the European intellectual elite perceived a common mentality produced by a shared belief in a set of values that has passed into history with the name of the artwork.

The Intellectual Climate: Revolution of Minds

This common mentality, rather than producing political change, sought to achieve a general revolution in minds, illustrating the rulers and educating people so that they could improve the law and realize the idea of progress. This notion of revolution of thought and education... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Historical Context: Enlightenment and Prussian Rule" »

Capitalism, Politics, and Social Change

The core of capitalist leadership, including the U.S., Europe, and Japan, extended to Latin America, Africa, and Oceania at the political level. Democratic systems were implanted in most countries, based on the recognition of individual freedoms, the division of power, and political pluralism.

Economically, a capitalist economy based on private property and free markets prevailed. Differences existed in the degree of intervention, favoring societies based on class and wealth.

Political Situation

Governments in Western countries leaned towards the center-right (liberal and Christian democratic) and center-left (social democratic).

Years of Growth

A period of elevated growth was based on:

• Advance advisory and

European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)

The ERDF is the primary structural instrument of the European Union, designed to foster regional development. It accounts for approximately half of all structural economic funding. Established in 1975, its core mission is to reduce regional economic imbalances between member states.

European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF)

Created in January 1962, the EAGGF is divided into two sections: one manages price security and farm incomes, while the other focuses on improving agricultural structures. The primary purpose of the EAGGF is the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

European Social Fund (ESF)

The ESF is dedicated to improving worker employability and raising living standards... Continue reading "Key EU Structural Funds and Founding Treaties Explained" »

The liberal revolutions: the revolution of 1820: They focused specifically on the European Mediterranean area, notably in Spain, Naples and Greece. The revolution failed due to the interference of neighboring monarchies qe absolutas.Solo in Greece rose against the Turkish empire, triumph movement backed by Britain leading to Greek independence. The revolution of 1830: The revolutionary wave of 1830 had mayorexitoque the previous qe and affection to all of Europe. The revolutions of 1830 altered the international situation inherited in 1815. West of the Rhine are created several moderate liberal monarchies. In this three empires: Russian, Turkish and Austrian who acted as vigilant against liberal and national movements. The main features of... Continue reading "Liberal Revolutions and the Rise of 19th Century Nationalism" »

Legislative Elections of February 1936

This document, extracted from a history book, reflects the results of the legislative elections held on February 16, 1936. It details the outcomes in the four Catalan provinces and Barcelona city. The two main contesting forces were the Left Front and the Catalan Front (Dorda).

The elections of February 16, 1936, were the last legislative elections to occur during the Spanish Second Republic before the outbreak of the Civil War. The political scene was sharply divided into two major, strongly opposed groups. These elections were highly significant as they followed the events of October 1934. Victory was proclaimed by the Popular Front, an alliance formed by all left-wing parties.

In these elections, the Popular... Continue reading "Key Moments of the Spanish Second Republic: Elections and Proclamation" »

LOGSE vs. LOE: Primary Education Curricula

This document compares the curricula for Primary Education under the LOGSE (Organic Law of the General Organization of the Educational System) and the LOE (Organic Law of Education) in Spain.

Curriculum Comparison

State Forms

State Authority Models

Authoritarian State

State Authority: The authority is unlimited, is not subject to any control, nor does it recognize any body to exercise criticism. This monopoly does not allow citizens to defend themselves in state affairs; the individual is totally helpless against the abuses of the state. There are two forms of authoritarian state:

1. State Absolutist

   Typical examples of this monopoly can be Felipe II's reign in Spain, Louis XIV's in France... There is no way of exercising any power or legal opposition against the king's command.

2. Totalitarian State

   The state controls all areas in which the subject unfolds, reaching control over those that are not state agencies, such as privacy and the media.

Rule of Law

The state... Continue reading "Understanding State Forms: Authoritarian, Rule of Law, and Social Models" »