The Rise of Napoleon and the Evolution of Liberalism

The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon

The Directory suppressed popular uprisings led by various sectors, but its greatest achievement was in foreign policy. France's borders were extended, and the bourgeoisie began to believe that the army was the only means of maintaining order. On 9 November 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup, seized power, and effectively ended the Revolution. He established the Consulate and declared himself First Consul.

The Consulate and Napoleonic Reforms

The Consulate drafted a new constitution that limited suffrage and established a Bill of Rights. Napoleon suppressed Jacobinism and democratic movements. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor and created new institutions, including:

• The Civil and Criminal Codes: Standardizing legal frameworks.
• Centralized Administration: Streamlining government operations.

The Fall of Napoleon and the Restoration

Napoleon attempted to dominate territories from Elba to Spain. However, his campaign failed in 1812, and he was overthrown in 1814. Power was restored to Louis XVIII following Napoleon's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. The major powers subsequently met at the Congress of Vienna with the goal of ending the principles of national sovereignty and constitutionalism.

Liberalism and Political Transformation

Liberalism represents the ideological and political transformations that occurred in Europe and America at the end of the 18th century. The Napoleonic Empire served as a reference point for these shifts. Liberalism identifies a set of ideas that formed the basis of the political systems created by bourgeois revolutions:

• Individual Freedom: The Liberal Party defends the right of all human beings to freedom, applied religiously, politically, and financially.
• Political Structure: Liberalism advocates for the separation of powers and sovereignty represented by parliaments.
• Constitutionalism: The Constitution serves as the fundamental rule of a constitutional monarchy.

Constitutional Frameworks

Under the 1791 Constitution, the King held executive power (including the right of veto), while the judiciary and legislative powers were held by judges and the National Assembly, respectively. Elections were based on censitary suffrage, where only active citizens could vote. Later, the 1793 Constitution introduced the Republic and universal male suffrage, though executive and judicial functions were suspended during this period.