Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

1. Historical Context

The period from 1874 to 1950 witnessed significant events in Spain's history. The Bourbon Restoration under Alfonso XII (1874-1923) was marked by the Disaster of '98, leading to the loss of overseas colonies. This era saw the rise of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship and the alternation of power between the Conservative and Liberal parties. The Second Republic was proclaimed in 1931, followed by General Franco's military uprising in 1936, which ignited the Spanish Civil War.

Spain's socioeconomic and political conditions during this time reflected a backward society within Europe, heavily reliant on agriculture. A growing polarization emerged between the landowning class and the rural working class. Ortega y Gasset warned... Continue reading "Spain: Sociopolitical & Cultural Shifts (1874-1950)" »

The Structure of the Francoist State

Organic Democracy: The Basis of the New Regime

For the construction of the new State, the basis was the Italian corporatist state, which organized popular participation according to the family, the municipality, and the union. This new system was called Organic Democracy.

Popular representation in state institutions was regulated by the Constitutive Act of the Parliament, which designated the Cortes as the "highest organ of the Spanish people's participation in the work of the State." Its representatives were appointed by the ruling power.

The Role and Limitations of the Cortes

From the Organic Law of 1966, attorneys emerged, known as the "third family," who were elected by vote by the heads of households. However,... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Organic Democracy and Post-War Repression" »

The Spanish Constitution of 1978

This document, of a legal and political nature, outlines a series of articles from the Spanish Constitution of 1978. It was drafted by the Constitutional Affairs Committee of the Congress of Deputies and published in December 1978.

Genesis of the Constitution

Following the composition of Parliament and its conversion to a bicameral system, Adolfo Suárez, then head of government, sought to transform the elected chamber for the transition into a constituent assembly. This crucial first step was decisive in creating the initial draft of the Constitution.

A committee was formed, comprising 36 deputies from various political associations. Within this, a subcommittee of seven individuals was tasked with approving the... Continue reading "Spanish Constitution of 1978: Foundations of Modern Democracy" »

Marx's Philosophy: A Scientific Interpretation of History

Marx's philosophy is intended as a scientific interpretation of human history, aiming to predict its future course. Marx argues that the proper way to interpret history is not by staying on the surface, focusing on anecdotes about rulers or the prevalent thoughts of each era. Instead, one must go directly to the motor of history, which, according to Marx, is the **economy** and the **production relations** among people.

The Motor of History: Class Struggle

For Marx, the motor of history is **class struggle**. Throughout time, different economic systems have emerged (slavery, feudalism, capitalism), each representing a different form of exploitation of one class by another. In each system,... Continue reading "Marxism: Understanding History and Class Struggle" »

Historical Materialism: Marx's Core Theory

Karl Marx's historical materialism posits the denial of the autonomy of ideas concerning the conditions of human existence, emphasizing the dialectical and historical character of the material base. Friedrich Engels, in fact, considered Marx's historical materialism (along with the theory of surplus value) among his most significant scientific findings. It is, fundamentally, a sociological theory rather than a purely philosophical one.

Key Tenets of Historical Materialism

1. The Economic Structure: The economic structure forms the real basis of society.
2. Production Relations: This structure consists of the relations of production, which are the relationships established between individuals according to their

Historical Materialism

Historical materialism is a theory about society which posits that the basis of all social order lies in production. Humans differ from animals when they begin to produce their means of subsistence, thereby indirectly producing their material life. To achieve this, humans must work, with work being the cause of production. This work has always been social and collective, thus creating a series of links and relationships between all agents of production, known as social relations.

Production Factors

Production is the activity that creates material assets and is conditioned by the nature of the objects being processed. This production involves two key elements: the work process and the relations of production. These two elements... Continue reading "Historical Materialism: Production as Society's Basis" »

Nouns: Words with Gender and Number

A noun is a word that has gender (feminine or masculine) and number (plural or singular).

Types of Nouns

• Common: chair, furniture, bed, piano, horse, etc.
• Proper: Antonio, San Juan, Malaga, etc.
• Concrete: Refer to material objects that are perceived by the senses (not just by sight): perfume, music, star, book, etc.
• Abstract: Designate intangible realities, which are included as concepts: sympathy, freedom, equality, etc.
• Singular: Refer to a single unit in the singular form: stylus, pond, person, etc.
• Collective: army, public, neighborhood, people, etc.
• Countable: Refer to existing objects that can be counted and numbered: home, planet, notebook, car, etc.
• Uncountable: flour, water, oil, salt, etc.

Determiners: Accompanying

Miguel Hernández: Social and Political Engagement

Miguel Hernández was born in 1910 into a modest family of farmers in Orihuela, Alicante. It was an agricultural community, characterized by a religious, cacique, and unchanging atmosphere. Some of his main patrons and friends of the time belonged to this conservative Catholic circle. This is why, in his first stage, Hernández adopted a position of religious and socio-political conservatism.

Early Works and Conservative Roots

His first published play was a sacramental titled "Quién te ha visto y quién te ve y sombra de lo que eras" (1933), which condemned revolutionary peasants and criticized the positions of communist labor unions and anarchists.

The Transition in Madrid

When Miguel Hernández... Continue reading "The Evolution of Miguel Hernández's Revolutionary Verse" »

Modern Conflict Dynamics

Symmetrical Warfare

Traditional warfare, or symmetrical conflicts, involves two great armies of equal strength facing each other, resulting in major and decisive battles.

Asymmetrical Warfare

Asymmetrical wars are more frequent. They involve a great power or coalition facing smaller groups with high maneuverability. An example of this is the struggle being waged by democratic states against terrorist groups.

The United Nations (UN)

The UN is an organization formed by 192 member states. Its objective is to work together for world peace, promoting friendship among nations and supporting socio-economic progress.

Key UN Agencies

• UNHCR: UN High Commissioner for Refugees.
• UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Major International Organizations

World Bank (WB)

The World Bank is one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations. It is defined as a source of financial and technical assistance for developing countries.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The IMF's statutes state its main objectives as the promotion of sustainable exchange rate policies at the international level, facilitating international trade, and reducing poverty.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

The OECD is an organization for international cooperation composed of 30 states. It aims to coordinate their economic and social policies. It was founded in 1960 and is headquartered in Paris, France.

United Nations (UN)

The UN is a global association of governments... Continue reading "Key Definitions of International Organizations and European Treaties" »