Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Social Inequality and Stratification

Social inequality, also called stratification, is the process through which a given society is divided into several aggregates called strata, each involving different degrees of prestige, property, and power.

Types of Stratification Systems

• Eastern Despotic Stratification: Characteristic of ancient empires with hydraulic exploitation.
• Caste Stratification: Hereditary and linked to the occupational structure of society.
• Feudal Property or Class Stratification: A comprehensive system of serfdom where a degree of freedom exists.
• Religious Stratification: Based on and linked to the economic development of capitalism; however, the political factor—the distribution of power and authority—is also very important in

The Second Industrial Revolution: An Era of Transformation

The Second Industrial Revolution marked a new phase of industrialization that developed during the last decades of the 19th century. During this period, new materials, fuels, engines, and forms of transportation began to replace those that had characterized the First Industrial Revolution.

Chronology: 1870-1900

Science and Technology in the Second Industrial Revolution

The persistence and acceleration of technological progress in the last third of the 19th century were increasingly due to the steady accumulation of useful knowledge. While some of this knowledge aligns with what we call "science" today, much was based on less formal forms of experience and information.

• The Second Industrial

The Age of Enlightenment

The eighteenth century was called the Age of Enlightenment by reference to the "light of reason," which attempted to eliminate the superstition, ignorance, and obscurantism of the previous centuries.

Scientific and Intellectual Progress

Reason and applied research resulted in considerable scientific progress: the terrestrial meridian was measured, the metric system was established, living beings were classified, and vaccines were discovered. But the biggest shifts occurred in ideas and beliefs, which were systematically reviewed and questioned.

Core Ideas and Values

This ideological and literary critical movement was called the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment, which had its origin in English philosophers, took its final... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and 18th Century Literature" »

What is Administration?

Administration is the process of predicting, planning, organizing, integrating, managing, and controlling the work of an organization's elements. It involves utilizing available resources to achieve predetermined objectives.

What is Taylor's Scientific Management?

Frederick Winslow Taylor's work laid the foundational steps of modern management thinking. His legacy remains a fundamental and obligatory reference for any manager, as his findings are still highly relevant today.

Taylor's significant contribution was the proposal to develop a science of work, known as Scientific Management.

What Constitutes Fayol's Administrative Management?

Henri Fayol's work, particularly his seminal book "Industrial and General Administration,

The First Globalization Wave: 1850–1914

During the 19th century, the process of globalization accelerated on an unprecedented scale. While long-distance trade has existed since at least the beginnings of civilization, its importance grew enormously and rapidly in the 19th century, leading to significant integration of the world economy.

Key Features of the First Wave (1850–1914)

• Freer movement of commodities.
• Great increase in international movements of people.
• Great increase in the international movements of capital.

Causes of Accelerated Globalization

• The Industrial Revolution and the diffusion of industrialization processes.
• Improvements in transport technology.
• Increased international movements of products, people, and capital.
• Imperialism.

The

The Legal Principles of Administrative Organization

A) The Principle of Hierarchy

This principle establishes that all government bodies are not equal, creating a hierarchy within the administrative organization, often represented as a pyramid. As one ascends the hierarchy, power and skill level increase, and vice versa. For a hierarchy to function effectively, two conditions must be met:

• Bodies with a plurality of matching material and staggered competition between them.
• That all will be guaranteed through a set of powers attributed to the higher bodies against the lower they are:
  • Potestad of momentum and direction, to direct its actions.
  • Potestad of inspection, monitoring/control.
  • Potestad to annul acts of the lower bodies through hierarchical recourse.

• Features of Galileo and Descartes

  Galileo presents science as a hypothetical, deductive, and experimental method. This is central to his approach to the scientific method, framing the investigation of nature as a dialogue. The only way forward is to propose hypotheses, which involve imagination and intuition, not certainty. Descartes' scientific method contrasts; its core is analysis and synthesis, not hypothesis and experiment. Galileo's method is compositional:

  1. It encodes and reflects steps.
  2. It seeks to extend this method to all knowledge, including metaphysics.

  Descartes' approach combines two key aspects:

  1. Defining the scientific method.
  2. Extending the method to all knowledge.

  Galileo differs by seeking to extend the scientific method to other

The Fascist Grand Council and the Transition to Democracy in Italy

The Fascist Grand Council was created in 1922 and became part of state institutions in 1928, effectively becoming the owner of the sovereignty of the state. In 1927, it adopted the Charter of Labor, subordinating economic forces to the development of national power. The Council, chaired by the Duce, had a dual character: a State organ and an organ of the party.

The Chamber of Deputies was elected in 1928 through the Acerbo Act, which attached 2/3 of the seats to the national list with the most votes. However, the regime disliked even this limited potential opposition. In 1928, the Corporate House was established with 400 deputies elected in a single national school, with candidates... Continue reading "Fascist Grand Council and the Transition to Democracy in Italy" »

School Failure: Problems and Solutions

Introduction

Schools face numerous challenges. One emerging trend is the concept of "dying of success," where the ease of independent learning at home, facilitated by new technologies, potentially undermines traditional schooling. Teachers often encounter resistance from students who prefer self-directed learning. This phenomenon raises questions about cultural arbitrariness, multiculturalism, and classroom violence. Furthermore, the perceived devaluation of teachers and the increasing emphasis on credentials for employment add to the complexity.

Dimensions of Reform

School failure in Spain is notably higher than in other parts of Europe and appears to be growing. The issue is particularly evident in secondary... Continue reading "Understanding School Failure: Causes and Solutions" »

Shifting the World's Image: Geocentric to Heliocentric

The geocentric model (Earth at the center of the universe) was finally replaced by the heliocentric model (Sun at the center of the universe). This fundamental shift underpins modern science, introducing a new, unitary conception of the universe.

Unlike the Aristotelian interpretation, which posited distinct supralunar and sublunary worlds—the latter allowing for decomposition and imperfections—the Scientific Revolution established a universe without privileged regions. Consequently, the universe is now understood as homogeneous in its material and phenomena, with the same laws governing movements on Earth and throughout the cosmos.

Modern science would not have been possible without significant... Continue reading "Scientific Revolution: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and the New Cosmos" »