Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

The Philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset

José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955), a prominent Spanish writer, essayist, and thinker, was born in Madrid. He held a doctorate in philosophy and served as a lecturer in metaphysics. His understanding of the history of philosophy emphasized a profound dialogue with classical Greek thought, alongside a critical engagement with contemporary German philosophy.

His extensive work is typically divided into three distinct periods:

• The Objectivist Period: Characterized by his time in Germany, focusing on objective reality.
• The Perspectivist Period: Where he posited that human beings apprehend the world from a specific, unique perspective, revealing a variety of facets.
• The Ratio-Vitalist Period: His most mature phase,

Single Electoral Divisions

Electoral systems often feature divisions within their territorial scope, where all votes are aggregated to implement the chosen electoral formula. This constituency structure is found in elections to the European Parliament, and also in local elections where each municipality serves as a constituency.

These constituencies may have different magnitudes. Districts with a minimum magnitude, often a single seat, are called single-member constituencies. When they are assigned more than one seat, they become multi-member constituencies. Multi-member constituencies can be categorized by the number of seats:

• Low-magnitude: 2 to 6 seats
• Average-size: 7 to 14 seats
• High-magnitude: Over 15 seats

Multiple Electoral Divisions

In systems... Continue reading "Electoral Systems: Divisions, Constituencies, and Gerrymandering" »

Principles of Democracy: Sovereignty, Rights & Powers

1. Sovereignty: The supreme political power in the state.
2. Government: The governing body that exercises political power; in democracies the government assumes executive power according to the division of powers.
3. Popular will: The political will of citizens expressed collectively.
4. Democratic attitude: The disposition to live together and reach agreements with those who have different opinions and interests.
5. Tolerance: An attitude of acceptance toward people with different beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and interests.
6. Minority rights: Rights recognized in democracies for groups that hold minority opinions or behaviors.
7. Human rights: The basic rights that all human beings possess by virtue of being

Linguistic Concepts

Vocabulary

B: finish, arrive, mist, bain, Baron, bandage, wart, beam, bald, perky, mobile, sap, download, pop, roll around, find work, debanar Basque, Vizcaya.

A: ring, tram, triumvir, seized, fir, grandfather anymore, abortion, change, rattlesnake, horse riding, coward, envestir, slender, fend, burning, lip, broad bean, outdoors, sports, test, rappel, radishes, sage, wine, Travis clover, buckle, Cordoba, La Habana, Stephen.

E: apricot, amethyst, assembly, Cinnamon, disguise, Carpenter, efeminat, asparagus, marigold, monastery, rock, Sergeant, hustle, Empúries on shaving ambassador, boot, murderer, evaluate, fault, bathrobes, down, front, birth, Pescadero, cattle, bitter brush.

Spelling Rules

• Beginning word S, V + C, + V, end.

Ethics

A set of moral norms governing the conduct of a person in any area of life.

Moral

A code of behavior that human societies are endowed with, defining what is right and wrong.

Moral Law

The laws established by each society, affecting the entire nation.

Religious Morality

It depends on each person's religion.

Social Morality

Rules society imposes in areas that are neither legal nor religious.

Family Morality

For example, rules parents impose.

Personal Morality (Children)

For example, whether a child allows themselves to be bothered or not in class.

Counselor

Equivalent to a minister, but specific to each Autonomous Community.

Historical Note: French Revolution and Women's Rights

During the French Revolution (1789), under Louis XVI, a declaration of women'... Continue reading "Civic and Ethical Foundations: Key Concepts Defined" »

The Social and Political Commitment of Miguel Hernández

Miguel Hernández's solutions in his writings can be divided into stages:

• The first stage expresses revolutionary acts of peasants and communists.
• The second stage begins with a poetry imbued with social protest.

The Farmer of More Air curses farmers and brandishes communist symbols.

The Ray Doesn't Stop shows loving and non-conformist introspection with a wicked society.

Wind of the People is optimistic, enthusiastic, and combative, moving by fraternity and fruitful blood. It has an epic tone but never ignores the lyric, with a clear and transparent way to be understood.

Man is a Hunter is the pessimistic version of the general war. The verse is large and painful, contemplating the defeat on... Continue reading "Miguel Hernández: Social Commitment, Images, and Symbols" »

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a discipline founded by Sigmund Freud, and within it, one can distinguish three levels:

• A) A research method that essentially brings evidence of the unconscious meaning of words, actions, and imaginary productions (dreams, fantasies, delusions) of an individual.
• B) A psychotherapeutic method based on this research and characterized by the interpretation of resistance, transference, and desire.
• C) A set of psychological and psychopathological theories that systematize the data provided by the psychoanalytic method of investigation and treatment.

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image.

• Repression:

Poetry

This genre often clashed with rationalism and the didactic aims of literature; expressing feelings was not well received.

Historical issues predominated, along with pastoral and anacreontic themes (extolling elementary pleasures and wine).

Featured Poets

Juan Meléndez Valdés, Tomás de Iriarte, and Félix Samaniego. The latter two are known for their fables.

Prose

The Essay: A study or written reflection on any subject affecting humanity (political, economic, social, literary, philosophical, etc.) that prompts the reader to think about the proposed topic.

• Benito Jerónimo Feijoo: A monk who taught at the University of Oviedo. He was a great promoter of European thought at the time. Much of his work was dedicated to debunking false superstitions

Although discussions about production and distribution have a long history, economic science in its modern sense, as a separate discipline, is conventionally dated from the publication of The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith in 1776.^[7] In it, he describes the discipline in these exact words:

Political economy, considered a branch of science of a statesman or legislator, proposes two distinct objects: first, to supply goods or income in abundance for the people, or more properly, to enable them to provide such a revenue or subsistence for themselves; and, second, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services. It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign.

Smith referred to the subject as "political... Continue reading "The Birth of Modern Economics: Physiocracy and its Principles" »

Oligarchy and Caciquismo: Political Commentary (1902)

Source Analysis and Nature of the Text

The text presented is a piece of political commentary titled Oligarchy and Caciquismo, dated 1902, placing it within the historical period of the Spanish Restoration. As it originates from the time period it describes, it is considered a primary source.

Key Concepts Defined

• Oligarchy: A form of government in which supreme power is held by a small group of people.
• Caciquismo: A system of local government characterized by a political leader (the cacique) who exercises total dominance over rural society, often expressed as political patronage.

Historical Context and Key Figures

These forms of government were prevalent in Spain during the Restoration period, particularly... Continue reading "Spanish Restoration Politics: Oligarchy and Caciquismo (1902)" »