Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Arnold's Concept of Disinterestedness

Matthew Arnold used the word disinterestedness with positive connotations. For Arnold, being 'interested' meant being socially or politically motivated, potentially creating an ideology. Literature was often criticized, he felt, because the 'interested' critic evaluated a work based not on its artistic values but on its political, social, and economic features.

The disinterested critic, in contrast, is not influenced by the practical affairs of everyday life; the critic is immune to external pressures. For Arnold, disinterestedness equates to objectivity. This type of criticism characterized the New Critics of the first half of the 20th century in Europe and the USA.

Arnold criticized publications like the... Continue reading "Matthew Arnold's Critical Concepts: Disinterestedness and Touchstones" »

1.5. In a Secant Cylindrical Transverse Projection, geographic coordinates are projected onto a plane wrapped around the Earth in the form of a cylinder that touches the Earth along a meridian (orthogonal to the equator). In a tangential projection, the diameter of the cylinder coincides with the diameter of the planet, whereas a secant cylinder is smaller than the diameter of the Earth, thus cutting through its surface along two meridians. Since projection scale is 1:1 at the tangent meridian, smaller than 1:1 in-between secant tangents, and larger than 1:1 outside tangents, the average projection error is smaller in the case of a secant projection, as compared with the tangential counterpart. When adapted to a specific region, the transversal... Continue reading "Map Projections, Reference Maps, Positioning and Mapping Measurement Explained" »

Ancient Greece and the Archaic Period

• Greece had a privileged maritime position, as it was located between the Aegean and Mediterranean seas.
• Around 800 BCE, the first stage of Greek history, called the Archaic period, began.
• Philosophy appeared, along with the first artistic forms, the theater, and political reforms.
• In the city of Athens, formal education began at age seven: young people learned to read and write and studied music; they also received physical training. Between ages 18 and 20 they performed military service.
• In Sparta, social classes included: Spartans, Helots, and Perioeci. The Spartans were the dominant ruling group.

Roman Civilization

• The Roman civilization was located on the Italian peninsula.
• Society was formed by the patricians,

Systems Approach to Public Administration

The systems approach explains the phenomenon of public administration by applying principles from general systems theory. Originally developed in biology, this theory now serves as a valuable viewpoint and analytical tool for understanding social phenomena and natural events. From this perspective, public administration is viewed as a set of interconnected elements that interact with their political system. It receives inputs, processes and transforms them under governmental guidance, ultimately translating them into public services and outcomes.

Public Administration as a Discipline

Defining Public Administration

• A discipline must possess its own body of postulates and theories to explain its object of

Question 1

Teachers should not replace "old technologies" with "new technology"; they should, first of all, ensure a good fit. That is, use each technology for what it is best suited, and therefore superior to the other. New technologies, when associated with good pedagogical teaching, learning, and assessment, are of great importance from the moment they are seen as educational tools that can facilitate learning and become mediators for students to construct their own knowledge. In this process, the student takes on an active role rather than a passive one, addressing their needs so they can become critical and reflective citizens in the context of current education. Given this reality, the idea that individuals must "be able to accomplish... Continue reading "Technology, Taxes, and Globalization: Key Issues" »

6) State Structure and the "First Device"

The Spanish Constitution (EC) in its Article 2 does not establish a definitive model of the state structure but is limited to establishing basic elements, allowing great flexibility in shaping the state model that has been shaped through the adoption of different Statutes of Autonomy.

The lack of definition of a closed state model shows that the EC does not determine whether the state should be formed by regions, how many, or which ones, nor what territory. Article 152 simply outlines its internal organization.

The constitutional uncertainty on these issues and the ability of the constituted territories to form new regional governments, while respecting constitutional limits, is what is called the "first... Continue reading "Spanish Constitution and Autonomous Regions" »

Project Preparation and Submission

The preparation of the Bill is the responsibility of the executive branch, which must submit it to Congress before September 15 of each year. At this stage, not only are costs and resources considered, but a thorough analysis of the socio-economic situation is also conducted. This marks the close relationship between the budget and all government programs.

Practically, the draft general budget is prepared by the Treasury Department, based on estimates provided by state agencies. These data are analyzed along with government plans and estimates of public resources. The project is developed and sent to the President for discussion, editing, and approval. Finally, it is sent to Congress with a document explaining... Continue reading "National Budget Cycle: Preparation and Approval" »

The EC was created to approve a new constitution for Spain. The reform law established three procedures for initiating the process:

• Government Initiative: Presentation of a constitutional text for discussion, approval, and submission to the Chambers.
• Parliamentary Initiative: The Chambers themselves initiated a proposal without prior government intervention.
• Royal Initiative: The King could push a text through a referendum without it going through the courts.

The second option, parliamentary initiative, was chosen as the government waived its right to present a constitutional text. Given that no single party held a majority, maximum participation from all parties was essential.

• Selection, Sorting, and Organization: Congress appointed a committee

Understanding Andorran Parishes

A parish is a territorial division established to facilitate the governance and management of a country and its inhabitants.

The Comú: Andorra's Local Government

The Comú is the governing body or council that administers and represents the interests and assets of each parish.

It is democratically elected every four years. The Comú comprises a Consul Major (the highest authority, similar to a mayor or president of the parish), a Consul Minor (who replaces the Consul Major in their absence), and a varying number of Councillors (from 8 to 12, depending on the parish). The Consul Major convenes and presides over Comú meetings. The Councillors collectively decide on the rules and operations of the Comú.

Key Functions

Social Inequalities: Causes and Consequences

The Industrial Revolution in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was a major cause of social inequalities. Key factors contributing to these disparities included:

• Establishment of factories and mass migration from the countryside to the city.
• Excessive working hours (14 to 16 hours).
• Low wages and inadequate housing.
• Lack of insurance and medical rights.

A new social class, the proletariat, reacted to these inequalities and injustices through strikes. As a result of this movement, the proletariat gained the right to association and trade unionism, although the working class remained exploited by the interests of capital.

Global Division Resulting from Industrialization

Due to the Industrial Revolution,... Continue reading "Social Inequality, the Proletariat, and Christian Social Action" »