Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Enlightened Despotism: Absolute Benevolence

Enlightened Despotism is a political concept that emerged at the end of the seventeenth century, belonging to the political systems of the Ancien Régime (Old Regime). It is a form of absolutism, often characterized as absolute benevolence. The ruler who practices it is sometimes called a benevolent dictator.

This system incorporated the ideas of the Enlightenment, particularly the belief that human decisions should be guided by reason. The monarch retained concentrated power but was viewed as the first servant of the state, implementing reforms aimed at achieving progress and the happiness of his subjects.

Key Reforms and Spanish Context

The monarchs that ruled under a system of enlightened despotism... Continue reading "The Age of Reason: Enlightened Despotism and 18th-Century European Reforms" »

The Galician Language in the Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries

During the Spanish transition to democracy, Spain began to be organized territorially into autonomous communities. Galicia was recognized as a "historic community."

With the advent of democracy, the demand for cultural and linguistic diversity in Galicia has increased. The language became the object of study and research to reach a standard. This involved the expurgación of dialectalisms, removing hiperenxebrismos, and adaptation to new environments of use: the city, media, normalization, and standardization.

• 1976: The University Department of Galician-Portuguese was created.
• 1978/1981: Thanks to the Constitution (1978) and the Statute of Autonomy (1981), Galician was recognized as

The Revolutions of 1848

1848: A general economic crisis characterized by poor harvests and industrial stagnation gripped Europe. In Paris, February 1848, progressives and Republicans grew increasingly wary of the king, fueled by widespread discontent. The king abdicated, and the Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government was established, and national workshops were created. Following elections, a constituent assembly was formed. Moderate Republicans triumphed, suppressed the national workshops, stifled labor protests, and eliminated social achievements. Additionally, Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Napoleon, won the election and proclaimed himself Napoleon III.

In Vienna, Metternich fell from power, leading to the creation of a constituent... Continue reading "1830 and 1848 Revolutions: Liberalism and Nationalism Impact" »

Sheet 2

* The ideological bases dl restorative system are:
"Pragmatism in policy, away from dogmatic positions d
"The defense of the internal constitution d d Spain
"The king shared sovereignty cuts, compared to the national
"Pessimism, leaving open the door to the regeneration dl country
Besides the army fell outside d politics and the electoral system was based on fraud ls q favoring dominant groups.
The 1876 constitution d noted for its stability. D is a text with 89 articles, q was a synthesis of d 1845 and 1869. Was approved of x the Constituent by universal suffrage. His features:
"The king shared sovereignty cuts
D The right to vote is left pending to not require d voting system
He introduced religious freedom, but limited
... Continue reading "The Restoration System and the 1876 Spanish Constitution" »

Economic Integration

Economic integration is the phenomenon of the progressive elimination of economic borders among a group of countries. It occurs in phases:

1. Preferential Agreement: A number of countries grant each other customs advantages not applied to other countries.
2. Free Trade Area: Member states eliminate tariff obstacles but maintain their own tariffs against third parties.
3. Customs Union: A common external tariff is applied to all imports coming from third countries.
4. Common Market: This is a customs union in which there is also a free flow of factors of production.
5. Economic Union: This means a complete common market with coordinated macroeconomic policy and the implementation of common economic policies.
6. Monetary Union: All currencies of

Nietzsche: Historical and Philosophical Context

Historical-Cultural Context

The nineteenth century was marked by dramatic changes caused by the Industrial Revolution and the triumph of capitalism. Growth was due to decreased mortality and increased birth rates arising from greater knowledge of disease. This resulted in theoretical debate, such as the doctrine of Malthus. Population growth led to a shift of population from rural areas to cities.

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, followed by France and Belgium. Along with this revolution, there was also the Agricultural Revolution, which increased productivity and reduced the need for manpower in the field. The development of the revolution gave rise to two opposing social groups: the... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Historical, Cultural, and Philosophical Context" »

Scientific and Technical Discourse: Genres

Scientific and technical texts are communicated through various channels, by different sources, in diverse social spheres, and with varied intentions.

Oral Channel

• Conference: A public presentation of informative and educational content.
• Discussion: Aims to unify contrasting opinions and reach mutually acceptable conclusions.
• Speech: An informative presentation aimed at specialists.
• Scientific Discourse: A public presentation by an eminent academic institution, specifying an augmentative.

Written Channel

• Scientific Paper: A brief exposure to scientific information with didactic intent, typically published in media.
• Essay: A philosophical or scientific paper addressing a topic from a personal perspective, presenting

Unification of Italy

Before 1870, Italy was divided into many states and regions:

• The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, an independent kingdom ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy.
• Milan (west-central) and Venetia (Venice, northeast) were states under the sovereignty of the Austrian Empire.
• Duchies (small states like Parma, Modena, and Tuscany) were on the Italian mainland.
• The Papal States (including Rome and the Vatican).

Key Figures:

• Victor Emmanuel II: Initiated the unification of Italy from Piedmont, favoring a monarchy.
• Giuseppe Mazzini: Also sought the unification of Italy, advocating for a republic.

Ultimately, a monarchy was established in Italy, led by King Victor Emmanuel II with Camillo Cavour as Prime Minister. Key dates include 1815 and... Continue reading "The Rise of Nations and Social Ideologies in 19th Century Europe" »

The Spanish-American Language: Evolution and Features

The term 'Spanish American' refers to the speakers of Castilian in various American countries. This linguistic reality stems from the Hispanization process that began in 1492 with the discovery of America. Essential factors for understanding this linguistic reality include the influence of native ethnic substrates on Castilian, and the imposition of a Castilian language that was already highly dialectalized.

Regional Linguistic Divisions

In Spanish America, linguistic variations often divide into two main zones:

• Highland (Cold Regions)

  Predominantly settled by Castilians. Characterized by weak vowels, with unstressed internal vowels tending to disappear.

• Lowland (Hot Regions)

  Predominantly settled

Spain's Multilingual Reality

Article 3 of the Spanish Constitution acknowledges the country's multilingual nature, stating that:

1. Castilian (Spanish) is the official language of the State, and all Spaniards have the duty to know it and the right to use it.
2. Other Spanish languages are also official within their respective Autonomous Communities.
3. The richness of Spain's distinct linguistic modalities is a cultural heritage that shall be respected and protected.

Bilingualism in Society

Bilingualism, the proficiency in two languages, can manifest both individually and societally.

Language Contact Dynamics

Language contact situations give rise to phenomena such as code-switching, interferences (including morphosyntactic, phonic, lexical, and orthographic... Continue reading "Spain's Multilingualism: Languages and Standardization" »