Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Newspapers: A Key Source of Information

A newspaper is a form of print media that informs the public about current events.

Features of a Newspaper

Newspapers are typically divided into sections. These sections include sports, entertainment, economy, opinion, and general information. The most important events are usually placed on the front page.

Newspaper Organization

Newspapers are generally organized with the front and back pages followed by national and international news.

Articles: Grammatical Components

An article is a type of word that precedes a noun, indicating whether it is specific or non-specific. Articles also denote the gender and number of the noun.

Article Classification

• Definite Articles: Used when the noun is known or specific.
• Neutral

Social Group Concepts

Tribus

An anthropological concept referring to joint families with a common patriarch.

Categorías

A more ambiguous term used to define a group of people related by certain characteristics (e.g., property can be a category).

Estamentos

Typical of the Middle Ages (e.g., the nobility, the clergy).

Clases sociales

A term coined by philosopher Karl Marx to designate different social groups and their role in relation to their level or means of production. Today, its strict sense has diminished as division is less simple. While the term capitalism is sometimes used loosely, sociology often uses concepts like middle class, lower class, and upper class.

Clan

A group of people with a head, often linked by an economic relationship. For example,

Chapter IX: Environmental Rights

Article 124: Protecting Intellectual Property and Collective Knowledge

Article 124 guarantees and protects intellectual property and collective knowledge.

Article 125: Indigenous Peoples' Right to Political Participation

Article 125 states that Indigenous peoples have the right to political participation.

Article 126: Indigenous Peoples as Part of the Nation

Article 126 affirms that Indigenous peoples, as cultures with ancestral roots, are part of the Nation.

Article 127: Environmental Protection as a Right and Duty

Article 127 establishes that it is a right and duty of each generation to protect and maintain the environment for its own benefit.

Article 128: State's Role in Environmental Planning

Article 128 mandates... Continue reading "Venezuela's Constitution: Indigenous Rights, Environment & Armed Forces" »

The Standard Language Variety

Language varieties have been created throughout history. A common variety, called a standard language, is one where dialect differences are poorly marked. Historically, this variety has been more associated with written communication than oral; however, it currently serves as a model for written language, oral communication, and mass media.

The standard variety is characterized by:

• Having a norm (or 'law') which serves as a reference model for speakers.
• Adapting to the changes that users can introduce.
• Presenting different rules or sub-norms based on the speech of educated speakers from various dialects.
• Being disseminated through institutions such as the Royal Spanish Academy, education, and communication media.

It is... Continue reading "Language Varieties and Communication Registers" »

Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, often referred to as the "father of observational astronomy" and the "father of modern physics." He studied medicine at Pisa but abandoned it in 1589 to accept a professorship of mathematics at the university. His ideas, contrary to Aristotle's physics (such as the principle of inertia), and his experiments on mechanics (e.g., speed of falling solids, pendular movement) led to much reproach from his countrymen. This opposition, particularly regarding the prevailing Geocentrism, led him to leave Tuscany.

Geocentrism

An astronomical system that posits the Earth as the center of the universe, with all other planets revolving around it. This model, also... Continue reading "Pioneers and Paradigms: Shaping Science and Thought" »

Key International Organizations and Treaties

World Health Organization (WHO)

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency linked to the UN, established in 1948. It is responsible for managing policies of prevention, coordination, promotion, and health intervention worldwide to achieve the highest possible levels of health for all peoples.

United Nations (UN)

The United Nations (UN) is an international institution created in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a political and military supranational... Continue reading "Key International Organizations and Treaties: Definitions" »

Critical Appraisal - The Tree of Knowledge

The Tree of Knowledge belongs to the first stage of Pio Baroja's literary career and thus has some autobiographical elements. It also clearly reflects the sensibility that the authors of the Generation of 98 had with respect to the life and society of the time. Thus, it is arguably one of the most representative novels of Baroja's work and, simultaneously, one of the most typical novels of the Generation of '98.

Autobiographical Nature and Character Development

The autobiographical nature is one of its characteristics, truly becoming a novel of character, focusing on Andres Hurtado. It focuses on the protagonist's life from its beginning to its tragic end, primarily focusing on the psychological development... Continue reading "Critical Appraisal of The Tree of Knowledge by Pio Baroja" »

Understanding International Economic Organization (IEO) Theories

The study of International Economic Organization (IEO) is a discipline that analyzes economic reality through the lens of international economic organizations. It's crucial to distinguish IEO (the field of study) from international economic organizations (ieo), which refers to the actual entities themselves.

With a clear definition of IEO, we can now examine the analytical methods and diverse schools of thought within this field.

Analytical Methods in IEO Studies

Two primary branches can be distinguished in IEO study methodology:

• Philosophical Reflection: This approach focuses on how international organizations should be. It was a predominantly philosophical method that prevailed until

The Industrialization of European Societies

Demographic Shifts and Their Consequences

The causes of this profound demographic change were increased food production and advancements in hygiene and medicine. Consequently, there was a reduction in mortality and a slight increase in birth rates.

The Factory System: Definition and Drivers

The factory system consists of the concentration of workers and machines in factories where the division of labor takes place. Mechanization and the introduction of new energy sources fueled its development.

Mechanization of the British Textile Industry

To produce greater quantities, a series of innovations were implemented. One of the first was the flying shuttle, which increased the speed of the weaving process. Later,... Continue reading "Europe's Industrial Transformation: Key Innovations and Social Impact" »

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

In a study conducted by George Graen, it is argued that due to external pressures, leaders establish special relationships with a small group of subordinates. These relationships are classified into two distinct groups: the Internal Group and the External Group.

Internal Group Dynamics

Members of the internal group establish a special relationship with the leader, receiving a disproportionate amount of attention and special privileges. This close bond often leads to greater support and resources from the leader.

External Group Dynamics

This group receives less attention and time from the leader. Members may feel excluded from the leader's primary focus, receiving fewer rewards or benefits. Their relationship with... Continue reading "Understanding Leader-Member Exchange and Path-Goal Theories" »