Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)

Founded by Pablo Iglesias in Madrid on May 2, 1879. Since its inception, the party aimed to unite the Spanish industrial proletariat under Marxist ideology, later evolving towards a social democratic orientation.

UGT (General Workers' Union)

Founded by Pablo Iglesias in Barcelona on August 12, 1888. This Spanish labor union also evolved from a Marxist to a social democratic orientation, similar to the PSOE.

Antonio Maura (1853-1925)

A prominent Spanish politician and lawyer, he served five times as President of the Council of Ministers of Spain and head of government. During his tenure, Maura was determined to end caciquismo (chieftaincy), encouraged Spain's relations with Britain and France, and initiated... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts in Modern Spanish History" »

What is a State?

The state is the top political and administrative unit which governs a territory and under whose authority are all inhabitants. This consists of four essential elements: a territory, a population, a government, and symbols (the "4 elements of states").

Core Functions of the State

State functions include:

• Maintaining public order within their territory.
• Defending their territory and their citizens against foreign efforts.
• Managing international relations.
• Preparing laws.
• Providing services and regulating the economy and labor relations.

The Welfare State and Social Equality

The welfare state, also called social status, occurs when the government intervenes in the economy and society in order to ensure that all citizens have a decent standard... Continue reading "State Governance: Democracy, Power, and Political Systems" »

Democracy: Core Principles and Policies

Democracy is a system where power belongs to all citizens. This power is not absolute but is limited by a Constitution, which, among other provisions, ensures the division of power and protects citizens' rights.

Access to political power is achieved through open and peaceful competition among a plurality of political forces. In a democratic regime, those who exercise power do so for a defined period. Citizens' rights are protected by the Constitution and laws.

The National Constitution

The National Constitution is a written document. It is considered rigid because its reform requires a special procedure, distinct from the common process for amending ordinary laws.

Objectives of the Constitution

The Constitution'... Continue reading "Democracy Fundamentals: Principles, Constitution, and Governance Models" »

Project Preparation and Submission

The preparation of the Bill is the responsibility of the executive branch, which must submit it to Congress before September 15 of each year. At this stage, not only are costs and resources considered, but a thorough analysis of the socio-economic situation is also conducted. This marks the close relationship between the budget and all government programs.

Practically, the draft general budget is prepared by the Treasury Department, based on estimates provided by state agencies. These data are analyzed along with government plans and estimates of public resources. The project is developed and sent to the President for discussion, editing, and approval. Finally, it is sent to Congress with a document explaining... Continue reading "National Budget Cycle: Preparation and Approval" »

Marx's Philosophy: A Scientific Interpretation of History

Marx's philosophy is intended as a scientific interpretation of human history, aiming to predict its future course. Marx argues that the proper way to interpret history is not by staying on the surface, focusing on anecdotes about rulers or the prevalent thoughts of each era. Instead, one must go directly to the motor of history, which, according to Marx, is the **economy** and the **production relations** among people.

The Motor of History: Class Struggle

For Marx, the motor of history is **class struggle**. Throughout time, different economic systems have emerged (slavery, feudalism, capitalism), each representing a different form of exploitation of one class by another. In each system,... Continue reading "Marxism: Understanding History and Class Struggle" »

Rousseau on Nature, Society, and Contract

According to Rousseau, men are naturally free and equal, possessing mercy, kindness, simplicity of life, and enjoy easy coexistence due to an abundance of goods. If men are seen in a state of struggle and inequality, it is attributed to society and its institutions, particularly private property. (Rousseau believed man is naturally good, but society corrupts him).

The only legitimate state operates under the rule of law, protecting all people and their property equally through a social contract. This contract ensures:

• Since all individuals surrender their rights equally, it prevents the creation of differences.
• It ensures no loss of personal freedom, maintaining equality.
• It guarantees the conditions necessary

Joaquín Costa and the Spanish Regeneration Movement

Joaquín Costa Martínez (Monzón, Huesca, September 14, 1846 – Huesca, February 8, 1911) was a distinguished politician, lawyer, economist, and historian from Aragon. He was a prominent member of Regenerationism, a movement at the turn of the 20th century that challenged the existing political system and sought to revitalize Spain.

The Socio-Political Context of the Restoration

The text examines the socio-political and economic environment of the Restoration era. Costa identifies the primary factors that shaped the government, specifically the oligarchy. This system placed supreme power in the hands of a wealthy few—large landowners and financiers—who maintained political control through... Continue reading "Joaquín Costa: Analyzing Spain's Oligarchy and Caciquismo" »

Science Study Sheet: The Solar System

Inner Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

Outer Planets (Gas Giants): Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Dwarf Planets

Pluto, Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.

Characteristics of Stars

• Red Stars: These are the coolest stars with the lowest temperatures (e.g., 3,000°C). Example: Betelgeuse.
• Blue Stars: These are the hottest stars with the highest temperatures (e.g., 11,000°C). Example: Rigel.
• The Sun: A yellowish-white star that falls between the temperatures of blue and red stars.

The Moon and Gravitational Forces

• The Moon rotates on its axis and also revolves around the Earth.
• Gravitational force: The force of attraction between all masses in the universe.
• This force keeps all planets orbiting the Sun.

Karl Marx's Theory of Alienation

Karl Marx's thesis on the alienation of humanity within capitalist society describes a condition he sought to expose and overcome. Alienation, in this context, signifies estrangement, humiliation, and even reification (the process of turning a person into a thing). From the perspective of historical materialism, work and production are fundamentally the primary sources of human self-realization and development. However, capitalism alienates the worker, thereby corrupting their activity, humiliating them, and reducing them to an object, a mere commodity. Through the worker's labor, the value of goods increases, creating an added value to the commodified object. Interestingly, alienation also impacts the capitalist,... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Theory of Alienation in Capitalism" »

• Electoral Systems

  Electoral systems exist in democratic regimes and are found in two forms: proportional and majority.

• Proportional: Characterized by the amount of power that is assumed in the governing bodies, which is proportional to the number of votes obtained in the elections.

Majority: Characterized by the desire to obtain the most votes, which grants all the power. When a party receives 50 + 1 votes, it secures 100% of the representation in Congress.

The proportional system is a fair system from the standpoint of political representation, but it is often seen as unfair compared to the majority system.

From the perspective of political representation, the proportional system helps create conditions that can lead to political instability due