Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

In general, there is a clear tendency for Romance languages—those that derive from Latin such as Spanish, Italian, French, or Portuguese—to clearly show gender agreement between the article, the noun, and the adjective. This is not as clear in Germanic languages like English or German. Such agreement is carried out through the addition of morphemes indicating gender and number (inflection).

On the contrary, English does not show gender agreement and, in order to express contrast between the feminine and the masculine, it resorts to lexical choice; that is, we find a different noun for each gender (a more analytical procedure). Such features could indicate that Romance languages tend to be more synthetic than Germanic ones. In spite of its... Continue reading "Gender Agreement in Romance and Germanic Languages" »

Isabella II: The Liberal State Begins (1833–1843)

The building of the liberal state began in Spain when Isabella II was a child (1833–1843).

The Regency of Maria Christina (1833–1840)

Maria Christina supported the Moderate Liberals, but a series of military uprisings and popular revolts forced her to hand power over to the Progressive Liberals.

Mendizábal, the leader of the Progressive Liberals, began the abolishment of the Ancien Régime by introducing fiscal reform. A new Progressive Constitution was drafted in 1837. Key features included:

• National sovereignty with census suffrage.
• The separation of powers and the establishment of two chambers.
• The granting of many rights and individual liberties.

The Regency of Espartero (1840–1843)

In 1837,... Continue reading "The Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868): Formation of the Spanish Liberal State" »

The Industrial Revolution: Political and Social Impact

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain during the 18th century with the invention of the steam engine and factory machinery, concluding in the 19th century. This transformation was so profound that, while primarily an economic shift, it fundamentally altered the political and social landscape. Key changes included:

• Devaluation of labor: Workers became replaceable by machines, leading to widespread mistreatment.
• Political disparity: The wealthy gained greater voting rights, cementing their influence.
• Social awakening: The working class recognized these systemic injustices and began organizing for change.

The Decline of Worker Importance

The introduction of machinery meant that the working... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Political and Social Transformation" »

How Factories Changed Life in Britain

The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the 18th century with the invention of the steam engine and the development of machines used in factories. It brought significant social changes and economic growth, particularly in Great Britain, the country where it began. The old estates system gave way to a new class system. But this was not the only change: it led to the rise of child labour, strengthened the power of the bourgeoisie, and caused large-scale migration to cities.

Child Labour in Factories

One of the ways factories changed life in Britain was by creating widespread child labour. Many factory tasks required little physical strength, so even children could work. Because machines reduced... Continue reading "Impact of Factories on British Society and Economy" »

Post-War English Fiction: Realism and Innovation (1930s–1960s)

The Post-War Literary Landscape

Following the wars, the 1930s and 1950s saw a rejection of modernism in favor of realism and political themes within documentary and realistic forms. However, experimental novelists continued to push boundaries, including: Samuel Beckett, Flann O’Brien, Lawrence Durrell, and Malcolm Lowry.

Crisis and Recalibration in 1940s English Fiction

The 1940s marked a crisis in English fiction due to the disappearance and subsequent recalibration of old principles of cohesion, including racial and national identity, gender roles, and class structures. This period created significant opportunities for imaginative intervention in social change.

Debating Realism

The New World: Crevecoeur’s Vision

At the beginning of his essay, Jean de Crevecoeur introduces the new land to Europeans who lack knowledge of it. He details the differences between the new land and Europe, highlighting its abundance, employment opportunities, personal freedom, and the unique relationship between the settlers, nature, and animals.

Comparing Europe and the New Land

After describing the new land in detail, Crevecoeur examines the behaviors, lifestyles, and social rules of Europeans. Through an intense analysis of European regimes and economies, he compares the Old World with the New. He concludes that the new land is significantly more livable for the common person. Furthermore, he notes that because Europeans are conditioned... Continue reading "Jean de Crevecoeur: Defining the American Identity" »

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships for the Goals

Understanding Race and Human Diversity

Key Concepts of Race

• Race is a modern idea with no genetic basis.
• Human subspecies do not exist.
• Skin color is only skin deep.
• Variation exists within so-called races, not primarily between them.
• Slavery predates the concept of race.
• Race and freedom were born together, with

Key Considerations for Strategic Partner Selection

1. Compatibility of Goals

2. Complementarity of Resources

3. Cooperative Culture

4. Commitment

5. Capability

Resource Complementarity

• The extent to which one party’s contributed resources are complementary to the other party’s resources, resulting in synergies pursued by both.
• The greater the resource complementarity between foreign and local parents, the higher the new value added owing to superior integration of complementary resources pooled by different parents.
• Resource complementarity also reduces governance and coordination costs and improves the learning curve.

Cooperative Culture

Cooperative culture concerns the extent to which each party’s corporate culture is compatible, thus leading... Continue reading "Strategic Partner Selection: Key Business Considerations" »

International Situation

In Europe, the United Kingdom remained the primary power, while Germany emerged as the second most significant economic force. Simultaneously, the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires were in decline. Outside of Europe, the United States completed its westward expansion and rapidly industrialized.

Alliances and the Armed Peace

This period was known as Peace Through Strength (Paz Armada). While European nations were technically at peace, they were heavily rearming for potential conflict. These tensions led to the formation of two major blocks:

• Triple Entente
• Triple Alliance

The Second Industrial Revolution

Beginning in the United States and Germany, this era was defined by new energy sources, specifically oil and electricity.... Continue reading "The Second Industrial Revolution and Global Imperialism" »

Thomas Jefferson's Presidency (1800-1808)

Judiciary Act of 1801

This act created new judgeships, 16 federal courts, and significantly increased the number of attorneys, clerks, and marshals.

The Marshall Court Era

John Marshall was named Chief Justice by the Judiciary Act of 1801. During his 34-year term, he appointed Federalists to all new judicial positions, including 42 new justices for Washington D.C.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

This was the first landmark Supreme Court case heard by Chief Justice Marshall. The ruling established the principle of judicial review, though Madison ultimately prevailed in the specific case.

The Louisiana Purchase (1803)

In 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte, unable to maintain control over his North American territories, sold... Continue reading "Key Events in Early American Republic: Jefferson to Van Buren" »