Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

Key Characters in 1984

Winston Smith

Winston Smith is a quiet, intellectual, and rebellious individual. He secretly despises the Party and its totalitarian rule. Despite his job at the Ministry of Truth, he has a strong desire for truth, freedom, and self-expression. He begins to write a diary, which is an act of rebellion against the Party.

Julia

Julia is Winston's lover and fellow rebel. She is bold, sensual, and openly defiant of the Party's rules. She shares his hatred for the Party.

O'Brien

O'Brien is a mysterious and intelligent character whom Winston believes is a member of the secret Brotherhood, a resistance movement against the Party. However, it is later revealed that O'Brien is a high-ranking Party member and a loyal servant of Big Brother....

Bourgeoisie Defined

A non-privileged social group residing in cities, primarily engaged in trade, banking, or industry.

The Role of Parliament

A political institution that historically represented the nobility, clergy, and cities.

Understanding Humanism

A political, social, and cultural ideology originating at the beginning of the Early Modern Period. It is based on reason, progress, and the **value** of the human being.

Protestantism and the Reformation

A Christian religious confession that separated from the Catholic Church, based on the ideas of Martin Luther in the 16th century.

The Modern State (Authoritarian Monarchies)

Also known as authoritarian monarchies, the Modern State represents the transition from decentralized monarchies (characterized...

Gulliver’s Journeys and Marlow’s Africa: Discovery vs. Colonialism

There is an ongoing debate regarding the primary themes in the novels of Conrad and Swift: whether they focus on discovery or colonialism. In my view, both authors intended to address both concepts simultaneously.

Joseph Conrad: The Nature of Colonialism

Joseph Conrad examines the nature of colonialism in Heart of Darkness. He sarcastically highlights the terror of the colonial enterprise by utilizing symbolic characters to mirror the real world. The most prominent is Kurtz, whom Conrad describes as a representative of all Europe. The author suggests that the nature of colonialism has not evolved since Roman times; while tools and weapons have advanced, the underlying purpose...

• Avignon: City in France where Pope Clement V moved the Church.
• Great Schism: Division in the medieval Roman Catholic Church, during which rival popes were established in Avignon and in Rome.
• John Wycliffe: English man that challenged the papacy. He preached that Jesus Christ was the true head of the church and not the pope.
• Jan Hus: Professor in Bohemia; taught that the authority of the Bible was higher than that of the pope.
• Bubonic Plague: Deadly disease that spread across Asia and Europe, killing millions of people. Three effects of this were that the town population fell, trade declined, and the serfs left the manor in search of better ways.
• Hundred Years War: Conflict between England and France for the French crown from 1337 to 1453.
• Joan of

The Conflict Between King Henry II and Thomas Becket

However, he soon began excommunicating all of Henry’s supporters. Henry flew into a rage, shouting the famous phrase: “Who will rid me of this troublesome priest?” and four knights decided to satisfy the king’s wishes. These are the knights mentioned at the beginning of the text, who enter the Cathedral of Canterbury eagerly looking for Becket (line 8: “...furiously cried aloud, ‘Where is this traitor?’”). Already in the first paragraph, Roger of Hoveden designates them as “ignominious” and “satellites of Satan,” making his point of view inferable, and writes their names down so everyone knows they are guilty of the crime which is about to happen.

The Martyrdom and Sacrifice

Key Religious Concepts Defined

Understanding Prophets and Call Stories

What is a Prophet?

A spokesperson for God.

Examples: Moses, Ezekiel.

The Call Story: Divine Invitation

A series of narratives detailing God's calling of individuals and entrusting them with a mission.

Covenant: A Sacred Agreement

A sacred agreement or solemn promise.

Revelation: God's Self-Disclosure

The act of God revealing Himself and His ethical principles.

How God is Revealed

• The Prophets: God's self-revelation to prophets.
• Nature: Through changing seasons and the natural world.
• Sacred Scriptures: Through which the actions of God in human history are revealed.
• Jesus: Through whom God fully revealed Himself.

The Nature of Human Relationship with God

Life at its core is a relationship...

Key Terms and Biblical Allusions (1-56)

1. Greater Man: Jesus Christ.
2. Heavenly Muse: The source of Milton's inspiration, identified with the Spirit of God that spoke to Moses.
3. Oreb, Sinai: Mount Horeb and Sinai, where Moses heard the voice of God.
4. Shepherd: Moses; referring to the chosen seed, the Jews.
5. Sion Hill, Siloa's Brook: Places in Jerusalem, the holy city of the Jews.
6. Aonian Mount: Mount Helicon in Greece, sacred to the Muses.
7. Argument: Subject (or theme).
8. Providence: God's plan for the universe.
9. Justify: To show the justice of. Milton states his purpose in this line.
10. Grandparents: Adam and Eve.
11. Transgress: To sin against.
12. For one restraint: On account of the command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge.
13. Th' Infernal Serpent: Satan, who in the Bible

United States Presidents Listing

First List of Presidents

• George Washington (1789-1797) F
• John Adams (1797-1801) F
• Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) D
• James Madison (1809-1817) D
• James Monroe (1817-1825) D
• John Q. Adams (1825-1829) W
• Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) D
• Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) D
• William H. Harrison (1841) D (VP)
• John Tyler (1841-1845) W
• James K. Polk (1845-1849) D
• Zachary Taylor (1849-1850) W
• Millard Fillmore (1850-1853) W
• Franklin Pierce (1853-1857) D
• James Buchanan (1857-1861) D
• Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) R
• Andrew Johnson (1865-1869) R
• Ulysses S. Grant (1865-1877) R
• Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881) R
• James A. Garfield (1881) R
• Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885) R
• Grover Cleveland (1885-1889) D
• Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) R
• Grover Cleveland (1893-1897) D
• William

The Catholic Church began its own reform to stop the spread of Lutheranism.

The Pope Paul III called the Council of Trent to correct the mistakes of Catholics.

• Prohibition of the sale of indulgences
• Creation of seminaries to improve the education of the clergy
• Obligation of the clergy to lead an exemplary life
• Creation of the catechism (basic teachings)

The Pope created the Inquisition in 1542, a tribunal that persecuted and punished those who didn't follow the Catholic doctrine. The Index Prohibitorum was written, with the list of forbidden books. For example: "95 Theses".

The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) spread the ideas of the Counter Reformation.

Sikhism: Core Beliefs and Practices

Key Figures and History

• Guru Nanak Dev Ji's Lifespan: 1469 to 1539.
• Role: A teacher in a religious school for Sikh children.
• Origin/Language: Punjabi.

Spiritual Goals and Concepts

• The ultimate goal is to attain Mukti (spiritual liberation).
• A desired state is being in the presence of God.
• One of the five vices (sins) is Sloth.

Symbols and Institutions

• Sacred Scripture: The Adi Granth (Guru Granth Sahib).
• Place of Worship: The Gurdwara.
• Symbolic Attire: A turban, indicating allegiance to the Sikh community.

Judaism: History, Scripture, and Tradition

Foundational History and Texts

• Approximate Early History: 1200 BCE.
• Historical Evidence: The Merneptah Stone/Stele.
• Jews commonly refer to their Scriptures as the “TaNaKh.”