Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

Cultural Dimensions of Spain

Power Distance

Power Distance refers to the extent to which individuals in a society accept and expect unequal distribution of power. Spain has a high score (57) on this dimension, indicating a hierarchical society where people accept a clear hierarchy without question.

Individualism

Individualist societies emphasize self-reliance and independence, while collectivist societies prioritize group loyalty and support. Spain is considered collectivist (score: 51), making Spaniards more comfortable interacting with non-European cultures and fostering teamwork in the workplace.

Masculinity

Masculine societies value competition, achievement, and success, while feminine societies prioritize caring and quality of life. Spain scores... Continue reading "Cultural Dimensions of Spain: A Comprehensive Analysis" »

The Cognitive Approach to Sleep

Definition/Explanation:

The cognitive approach views sleep as something that facilitates information processing. Sleep is used to secure information gathered during the day in long-term memory. Memories and learning are moved to long-term storage during sleep.

According to the cognitive approach, dreams are not meaningless. In fact, they are essential points of our problem-solving process and allow information to be synthesized and recombined to gain insight.

Domhoff (2011) argued that dreams are what occur when the mind doesn't have anything else to do. During the day, we daydream, but during the night, we aren't in control, and our dreams seem more vivid and engrossing. He believes that dreams are mental processes... Continue reading "Cognitive Approach to Sleep: Memory and Problem-Solving" »

Fear

A natural emotional response to a perceived threat or danger. It's a basic survival mechanism.

Phobia

An extreme and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. Phobias can cause significant distress and impact daily life.

Pathos

An appeal to emotions to persuade or convince an audience.

Logos

An appeal to logic or reason, using facts, evidence, and reasoning to support an argument.

Ethos

An appeal based on the credibility or character of the speaker, emphasizing trustworthiness and expertise.

Interpersonal

Relating to interactions and relationships between people.

Intrapersonal

Relating to introspection, self-awareness, and understanding oneself.

Confidence

Confidence is a belief in one's abilities, skills, and judgments. Difficulties... Continue reading "Understanding Fear, Phobias, and Communication Barriers" »

Key Concepts in Child Development and Psychology

Developmental Stages and Processes

1. During the course of successful prenatal development, a human organism begins as a zygote and finally develops into a fetus.
2. One of the most consistently damaging teratogens is alcohol.
3. The symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome are most likely to include mental abnormalities.
4. The rooting reflex refers to a baby's tendency to open the mouth in search of a nipple when touched on the cheek.

Early Cognitive Abilities

5. In order to test whether newborns can visually discriminate between various shapes and colors, psychologists have made use of the process of habituation.
6. The best evidence that a 4-month-old infant possesses an understanding of object permanence is the child's

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

What are the 5 dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior?

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) is the contribution that employees make to the overall welfare of the organization that goes beyond their required job duties.

The 5 main dimensions of citizenship behavior are:

1. Altruism: (helping behavior) willfully helping specific people with an organizationally-relevant task or problem.
2. Conscientiousness: being punctual, having attendance better than the group norm, following company rules, regulations, and procedures.
3. Courtesy: being mindful and respectful of people’s rights.
4. Sportsmanship: avoiding complaints, petty grievances, gossiping, and falsely magnifying problems.
5. Civic virtue: responsible participation

Major Depression in a Teenager

I will use psychotherapy which is frequently used in the treatment for childhood and adolescent depression. It helps people by helping them to understand the behavior and emotions that contribute to their issues and how to benefit from them, helping them to come out of the stress and mental blocks caused by traumatic events. The most important part is helping them to learn coping techniques and problem-solving skills. The advantages of this treatment are that there are fewer side effects, it develops skills to improve relationships, and it helps the patient to understand himself and his personal goals better. The most important disadvantages of this therapy are that it takes longer than drug therapy to produce... Continue reading "Effective Therapies for Teenage Mental Health Issues" »

Interaction Strategies:

• Taking the Floor: Can ask for attention.
• Co-operating: Can indicate when they are following.
• Asking for Clarification: Can say “Repeat, please”, can say “Sorry, I don’t understand”, and can ask for clarification about key words or phrases.

Example: Talk about your favorite animal with your partner (spoken interaction).

Reception Strategies:

• Grasp the overall meaning (gist).
• Extract specific information.
• Predict.
• Guess the meaning of unknown words.

Example: (CD) Listen and tick the four animals.

Production Strategies:

• Planning: Can rehearse what’s going to be said.
• Can plan silently what’s going to be written.
• Compensating:
  • Can identify what he/she means by pointing.
  • Can use gestures to clarify what he/she wants to say.

Ethical Principles in Research

The Belmont Report

The Belmont Report summarizes ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Three core principles are identified: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Three primary areas of application are also stated: informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects.

Animal Welfare Act

The Animal Welfare Act requires that minimum standards of care and treatment be provided for certain animals bred for commercial sale, used in research, transported commercially, or exhibited to the public.

Respect for Persons

Respect for persons involves protecting the autonomy of all people, treating them with courtesy and respect, and allowing for informed consent.... Continue reading "Ethical Research: Principles, Practices, and Measurement" »

Chapter 20: Evaluation

Critical Thinking and Evaluation

Critical thinking is how a nurse gathers patient data from nursing diagnoses to develop a plan of care and implement interventions. Evaluation, the final step of the nursing process, determines whether the patient's condition or well-being improves after applying the nursing process. Nurses apply their knowledge and previous experiences to evaluate the effectiveness of nursing care.

Evaluative Measures vs. Assessment

Assessment identifies existing problems, while evaluation determines if those problems have remained the same, worsened, or changed.

Importance of Evaluative Measures

Using the right evaluative measures increases the likelihood of accurately identifying changes in the patient's... Continue reading "Effective Nursing Evaluation: Critical Thinking & Patient Outcomes" »