Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Data Gathering Methods

Physical Data Gathering Methods

1. Notes

   • Pros: Good overview, flexible, less intrusive, aids focus.
   • Cons: Can be difficult and slow, requires concentration, potential for bias.

2. Audio/Video Recording

   • Audio combined with photos can add valuable context.
   • Requires explicit permission from participants.
   • Raises potential privacy issues.
   • Requires good quality recording equipment.

Data Gathering Techniques

Surveys

Recruitment

• Define the target population clearly.
• Gather relevant demographic information.

Sampling

• Probabilistic Sampling: Each member has a known probability of being chosen.
  • Example: Census.
  • Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance.
  • Stratified Sampling: Ensures representation from each subset of the population.
• Non-probabilistic

Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (Explicit Learning)

Role of Attention and Awareness

Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis posits that learners must consciously pay attention to and be aware of linguistic input to acquire a second language (L2). This contrasts with implicit learning theories, which suggest that language acquisition can occur subconsciously.

Intake refers to the portion of input that learners successfully process and integrate into their L2 knowledge. Attention plays a crucial role in selecting intake by:

• Heightening the activation level of input in working memory, allowing it to remain available for further processing.
• Facilitating the transfer of information to long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory Functions

Long-term memory serves two primary... Continue reading "Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition" »

Expectancy Theory:

Expectancy Theory: is the idea that people's actions are driven by expected consequences. Behavior based on Vroom’s theory results from conscious choices to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. 1 Effort = Performance Relationship = Expectancy (Resources, Training or Supervision) 2 Performance = Outcome Relationship = Instrumentality (Promise must be fulfilled) 3 Outcome = Personal Goals Relationship = Valence (Money, Promotion, Benefits)

Equity Theory:

Equity Theory: is the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness. Negative and Positive Inequity feelings revolve around a person’s perception of rewards and inputs. People compare themselves with others on a similar level. Negative inequity is perceived if a comparison... Continue reading "Understanding Motivation Theories and Team Development Stages" »

Chapter 1-7

Baseline: the period of an experiment without the treatment.

Behavior: anything that a person does.

• This implies that the activity is physical.
• This includes obvious, subtle, internal and private events.

Behavior analysis: the study of environmental events that change behavior.

• The founder of behavior analysis is Skinner.
• Behavior analysis exploded in popularity in 1970.
• Behavior analysis studies thoughts and feelings as behavior.
• Behavior analysis sees most behavior as voluntary behavior.

Behavioral definition: a statement that specifies exactly what behavior to observe.

• Creating a behavioral definition is the first step in studying behavior.
• It makes communication clearer; it maintains consistency of observations.

Behavioral strategy: the... Continue reading "Behavior Analysis and Strategies: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Understanding Social Influence in Groups

Social influence in groups occurs when the majority of the members influence smaller subgroups within the group to change (majority influence) and when the minority members succeed in converting the majority of group members to their position (minority influence). Asch studied conformity by measuring people's decisions when the majority of their group's members made errors judging line lengths.

Types of Conformity

When group members change their position, their conformity may result from temporary compliance to the group's pressure rather than true conversion (private acceptance). Those who do not comply may be displaying independence or deliberate defiance of the group (anticonformity). When congruence... Continue reading "Understanding Social Influence: Majority and Minority Dynamics" »

Ecocriticism: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Ecocriticism is an interdisciplinary field that examines the relationship between literature and the environment. Scholars analyze texts that illustrate environmental concerns and explore how literature treats nature.

Core Concepts

• Ecology: The biological study of interactions between organisms and their physical environment.
• Domestic vs. Wild Nature: Domestic nature is customized for human benefit, while wild nature remains untouched by human intervention.
• Biocentrism: An ethical stance that values all life forms equally, regardless of their species.
• Darwism: The theory of biological evolution through natural selection.
• Pioneer Species: Organisms that colonize new environments, shaping their ecosystems and

Chapter 7: Experiencing Positive Emotions

When it comes to flourishing as human beings, what often takes center stage is our ability to feel positive emotions.

One of the core elements of flourishing is the study of positive emotions (PERMA).

Positive Emotions: a wide range of pleasant emotions in the past, present, and future; being able to know what it is to be happy and to experience an enduring sense of well-being.

Two ways of smiling:

- Duchenne smile: a full-face smile where not only your mouth turns up, but the corners of your eyes crinkle, as well. That is, you smile with your eyes as well as your mouth.

- “the other smile”: with the mouth only and does not involve the eyes.

The extent to which the women displayed the Duchenne smile in... Continue reading "Experiencing Positive Emotions and Happiness" »

CONVENTIONS:

practices, behaviours, ideas and styles regarded as normal or taken for granted.

DISCRIMINATION:

treating someone or some group as different or less-than based upon their identity.

DOUBLE STANDARD:

a set of guidelines or principles in which one group of people is treated differently than performing the same or similar behaviour.

EXCLUSIONIST:

the position of excluding someone or some group from a fundamental right or prerogative.

FEMININITY:

socially constructed characteristics or ideas typically associated with the female sex.

FEMINISM:

a philosophy and social movement centered on improving the status and lives of women.

GENDER:

socially constructed characteristics associated with biological sex; ie., feminine, masculine.

HIERARCHICAL:

a system... Continue reading "Understanding Media Representation and Social Issues" »

Proposition:

Minimal unit of cognitive semantics; it is the equivalent of a statement, a statement being a sentence either affirmative or negative.

Utterance:

Is more a pragmatic form. It is an item of language produced by a real speaker in a real situation. Sometimes proposition and non-propositions are utterance.

Lexical meaning:

The meaning assigned to every word of the sentence.

Natural language:

A language that has developed naturally in use (as contrasted with an artificial language or computer code). The language of every human society.

Conceptualization:

Cognitive process automatically performed to make sense of the world/outer reality.

Categorization:

Basic cognitive function. Performed automatically and unconsciously as we interact with reality/... Continue reading "Cognitive Semantics and Language: Understanding the Basics" »