Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

The Spiral of Silence

The phrase "spiral of silence" describes how people tend to remain silent when they believe their views are in the minority. This silence stems from a fear of social isolation. People understand which behaviors might lead to isolation and are hesitant to express minority opinions to avoid it. The closer a person perceives their opinion to be to the prevailing public opinion, the more willing they are to express it publicly. Conversely, if public sentiment shifts away from their view, they become less likely to voice it.

Polls vs. Surveys

While both gather information, polls and surveys differ in scope. A poll typically poses a single multiple-choice question, with predefined answers. Participants may select one or multiple... Continue reading "The Spiral of Silence and Public Opinion" »

OBJECTIVES OF ADOLESCENCE 
    To develop emotional and cognitive abilities. Young humans have access to abstract thinking and reflexive knowledge. 
    To build a personal identity, integrating and accepting their body image, have expectations and future projects. This includes accepting puberty’s physical changes, redefining familiar relationships, achieve emotional independence and a sexual identity. 
    To acquire new social abilities (relations with other classmates and adults), an autonomous moral, new interpersonal relationships (couple relationships) and exercising a studying or working role. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES:
   It reaffirms the Ego. Individuals take conscience of themselves and acquire more emotional control. This... Continue reading "Human performance " »

Values and Modernization – Conceptual Framework Modernization theory builds on a long tradition stressing the Potential and extent of human progress. Generalized expectation that socio-economic modernization Effects value change. Enlightment: Science and reason set individuals free Marx: Technological change and capitalism makes Communism possible Smith: Technology is a source of wellbeing Postwar theorists: Some values favor economic progress While other ones not (e.G. Parsons) Nevertheless, classic modernization theory underspecifies (a) Mechanims and (b) types of values brought by modernization. Inglehart and central social theorists consider that economic Change is the main source of value change in modern societies. Values differ much... Continue reading "Human relation theory was an improvement scientific management theory of organigation" »

Qualitative Research

Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. It refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things. Qualitative research is subjective and uses various methods of collecting information, including individual in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this research is exploratory and open-ended.

Nacirema

A term used in anthropology and sociology in relation to aspects of the behavior and society of citizens of the USA. It encourages a deliberate sense of self-distancing so that American anthropologists might look at their own culture more objectively. Think of yourself as an alien; if you came to Earth today, would you think

FREUD

·Oral: sucking and feeding

·Anal: focus of pleasure and toilet training

·Phallic: penis is the most important body part

·Latency: sexual need is acquired

·Genital: genital attention and sexual stimulation

·Adulthood: Continuation of all stages

ERICKSON family/culture

Developmental crisis

·Trust vs. Mistrust: being help, cared

·Autonomy vs. Shame: become self sufficient

·Initiative vs. Guilt: undertake adult activities

·Industry vs. Inferiority: master new skills

·Identity vs. Role confusion: development self-sense

·Intimacy vs. Isolation: develop relationships

·Generativity vs. Stagnation: contribute to the Future generations

·Integrity vs. Despair: make sense of your life

PIAGET

·Sensorimotor: use the sense and motor skills to Understand... Continue reading "essay" »

Key Phases in the Research Process

1. Conceptual Phase

In this initial stage, we determine the specific topic of research. This involves:

• Formulating the initial question and conception.
• Defining the objectives of the investigation.
• Writing the theoretical framework.

2. Design Phase

During this phase, we select a methodology based on the purpose and scope of the research:

• Purpose: Basic or applied research.
• Temporal Scope: Sectional or longitudinal (retrospective, prospective, panel, and tendency).
• Depth: Exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory.
• Sources of Information: Primary, secondary, or combined.
• Character: Qualitative (seeking to discover sense and meanings) or quantitative (focusing on objective aspects, quantification, and explanation).
• Nature:

Childhood and Adolescent Sexual Development

According to Kinsey, approximately 50% of boys aged 3-4 can achieve urogenital muscle spasms associated with orgasm, though no fluid is ejaculated.

Masturbation Trends

• Boys: Masturbation typically begins between ages 13-15. By age 15, 82% of boys report having masturbated.
• Girls: Masturbation begins later and increases in prevalence more gradually.
• Frequency: Approximately 50% of teenage boys and 25% of girls report masturbating, with boys reporting an average of 2-3 times per week compared to once per month for girls.
• Early Childhood: 70% of mothers report observing masturbatory behavior in children under age 6, with some instances occurring as early as 3-4 months.

Psychosexual and Physical Milestones

Children... Continue reading "Human Sexual Development and Physiological Response Patterns" »

Understanding Reliability

Reliability refers to the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. It focuses on the consistency of the assessment.

• Interrater Reliability: Assesses whether different observers are consistent in their judgments.
• Test-Retest Reliability: Evaluates the consistency of a test across different administrations over time.
• Parallel Forms Reliability: Compares two different versions of a test that measure the same construct with different, but equivalent, questions.
• Internal Consistency Reliability: Measures the consistency of results across items within a single test. This can be assessed through:
  • Average Inter-Item Correlation: Calculates the average of all correlation coefficients between individual

Classical Conditioning Principles

Acquisition: The process where a stimulus elicits a conditioned response (CR). Acquisition is quicker if the stimulus is salient; the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and conditioned stimulus (CS) are paired multiple times.

Extinction

Extinction: The elimination of the CR due to withholding the UCS; extinction is a gradual change.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery: The recovery of the CR after extinction; a weakened CR can still exist.

Generalization

Generalization: When a CR is acquired, stimuli similar to the CS can evoke the response. Generalization can contribute to the development of phobias.

Discrimination

Discrimination: A CR is produced only if a unique stimulus is presented; discrimination involves associating... Continue reading "Classical Conditioning Principles and Learning Theories" »

Metastasizing Crisis - Occurs When a Small, Isolated Incident is Not Contained and Begins to Spread

Definitions of Crisis -

• A crisis arises from a traumatic event that is unpredictable and uncontrollable.
• Crisis is a crisis because the individual knows no response to deal with a situation.
• Crisis is a personal difficulty or situation that immobilizes people and prevents them from consciously controlling their lives.
• Crisis is a state of disorganization in which people face frustration of important life goals or profound disruption of their life cycles and methods of coping with stressors. The term crisis usually refers to a person’s feelings of fear, shock, and distress about the disruption, not to the disruption itself.
• Crisis is a temporary breakdown