Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Proposition:

Minimal unit of cognitive semantics; it is the equivalent of a statement, a statement being a sentence either affirmative or negative.

Utterance:

Is more a pragmatic form. It is an item of language produced by a real speaker in a real situation. Sometimes proposition and non-propositions are utterance.

Lexical meaning:

The meaning assigned to every word of the sentence.

Natural language:

A language that has developed naturally in use (as contrasted with an artificial language or computer code). The language of every human society.

Conceptualization:

Cognitive process automatically performed to make sense of the world/outer reality.

Categorization:

Basic cognitive function. Performed automatically and unconsciously as we interact with reality/... Continue reading "Cognitive Semantics and Language: Understanding the Basics" »

Instructions:

Choose the best answer for each multiple-choice question.

Questions:

1. Carl Jung believed that all humans have a common hereditary...
   1. Collective unconscious
   2. Displacement
   3. Rationalization
   4. Projection
   5. Regression
2. Three-year-old Joey is very angry with his parents but instead yells at his teddy bear. This is an example of...
   1. Collective unconscious
   2. Displacement
   3. Rationalization
   4. Projection
   5. Regression
3. A person with anorexia nervosa tells her therapist that she doesn't eat because she is worried about gaining weight, not because she wants to punish her parents. This is an example of...
   1. Collective unconscious
   2. Displacement
   3. Rationalization
   4. Projection
   5. Regression
4. Sam says that he does not trust Dorothy, but in reality, Dorothy feels that Sam is the one who cannot be

What is Psychology?

Psychology, derived from the Greek words "psyche" (soul) and "logos" (study of), is a complex field to define. It is the scientific study of mental processes, experiences, and behavior in various contexts.

Mental Processes

Mental processes involve activities like problem-solving, remembering, knowing, and learning. These are the internal mechanisms of the mind at work.

Experiences

Experiences are subjective and personal. Only the individual experiencing them can be fully aware of their nature. These experiences are embedded in our consciousness and are influenced by both internal and external factors.

Behavior

Behavior encompasses the responses, reactions, and activities we engage in. Some behaviors are overt and observable, while... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: Mind, Behavior, and Perspectives" »

Personality: A Person's Pattern of Thinking, Feeling, and Acting

Type A and Type B Personalities

• Type A: Feel time pressure, easily angered, competitive and ambitious, work hard, more prone to heart disease.
• Type B: Relaxed and easygoing, work steadily, disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve.

Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

Freud believed that libido (psychosexual energy) moves to different parts of the body during different stages of development:

• Oral Stage (0-2 years): Sucking, mouth (drinking, eating, dependence, independence)
• Anal Stage (2 years): Bowel movements (orderly, stubborn/messy, wasteful)
• Phallic Stage (3-5 years): Play with genitals, feel attracted to the opposite parent
• Latent Stage (5 years to adolescence): Suppress

Sex and gender are two concepts often presented as equal, but they are not. Sex refers to the biological classification based on reproductive organs. Gender is based on psychological and social characteristics associated with being male or female. This article aims to explore the relationship between gender and health. Gender affects the approach to healthcare and the manifestation, epidemiology, and pathophysiology of diseases. We will discuss how gender can be a conditioning factor in health and how it affects mental health throughout the life cycle.

Cultural Influence on Gender and Health

Culture plays a very important role in the behaviors of men and women. Gender differences produce gender inequalities that empower one group to the detriment... Continue reading "Sex, Gender, and Health: Impact on Mental Well-being" »

Introduction to OB

Organisational behaviour is more about individual and team

Human are easy to deceive

Intuition can be wrong

Organisational culture

Definition: It is the shared set of beliefs, expectations, values, norms, and work routines that influence how members of an organization relate to one another and work together to achieve organizational goals.

7 dimension of organizational culture

Innovation/Stability/Respect for people/Outcome orientation/Attention to detail/Team orientation/Aggressiveness

Variability in culture is low than the relationship between outcome and culture is clear

Importance of a strong organisational culture

Organisational identity (like sense of belonging)/Sense-making device/Collective commitment/Social system stability... Continue reading "Understanding Organisational Behaviour and Leadership" »

Emminent Giftedness and high achievement – beyond IQ Renzulli (2002) – intersection of three factors (intelligence, exceptional motivation, high creativity) Simonton (2001) – drudge theory; push themselves harder and benefit more from intensive practice

Winner says hard work may be a result of inborn ability; Gifted are more likely to find efforts rewarding and thus work harder

Cumulative deprivation hypothesis – children raised in substandard environments experience a gradual decline in IQ as they get older because other children will be progressing more rapidly

Studies of adopted children do show similarity to biological parents, but better environment does also have an effect on IQ

Exceptionally reliable – correlations into the .90s

Qualified

Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research

One ethical consideration in psychological research is the use of deception. Deception occurs when a participant is not made fully aware of the purpose of a study or is intentionally misinformed. Researchers often use deception to hide the true aim of an experiment. If participants knew the aim, they might demonstrate demand characteristics, either trying to give the researchers what they want or behaving in a way that makes them look their best, a phenomenon known as the social desirability effect.

Deception is problematic because it undermines the concept of informed consent. It violates the trust between a researcher and a participant. Additionally, it increases the chance that a participant... Continue reading "Ethical Deception in Research & Multi-Store Memory Model" »

Bronfenbrenner: Social/Bio Ecological NO STAGES

The Russian Nesting Doll

Used in the classroom and everyday life

Ignores the roles of cognition and is hard to back up with research

Microsystem:

The people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

Mesosystem:

Connections between microsystems

Exosystem:

Social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

Macrosystem:

Consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

Connected to Piaget

Piaget: Cognitive STAGES

Jaffa Cakes, water beaker, coins

Underestimating children abilities, impact of culture

Sensorimotor:

Birth to 2 years, during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Preoperational:

2 to 7... Continue reading "Developmental Theories: A Comparison of Bronfenbrenner, Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg" »

Cerebellum's Role in Learning

Thompson identified the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) in the cerebellum as crucial for learning. Blocking LIP activity during conditioning prevents learning responses. Studies confirm LIP's necessity for learning, retention, and extinction.

Types of Memory

Short-Term Memory

• For recent events, limited capacity.
• Fades quickly without rehearsal (around 20 seconds).

Long-Term Memory

• For older events, vast capacity.
• Can last for years, aided by cues.

Consolidation

Process of crystallizing short-term memories into long-term.

Working Memory (WM)

Brain system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks (learning, reasoning). Requires simultaneous storage and processing, linked to prefrontal cortex... Continue reading "Cerebellum and Memory: LIP, Hippocampus, and Learning Processes" »