Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

Personality: A Person's Pattern of Thinking, Feeling, and Acting

Type A and Type B Personalities

• Type A: Feel time pressure, easily angered, competitive and ambitious, work hard, more prone to heart disease.
• Type B: Relaxed and easygoing, work steadily, disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve.

Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

Freud believed that libido (psychosexual energy) moves to different parts of the body during different stages of development:

• Oral Stage (0-2 years): Sucking, mouth (drinking, eating, dependence, independence)
• Anal Stage (2 years): Bowel movements (orderly, stubborn/messy, wasteful)
• Phallic Stage (3-5 years): Play with genitals, feel attracted to the opposite parent
• Latent Stage (5 years to adolescence): Suppress

Sex and gender are two concepts often presented as equal, but they are not. Sex refers to the biological classification based on reproductive organs. Gender is based on psychological and social characteristics associated with being male or female. This article aims to explore the relationship between gender and health. Gender affects the approach to healthcare and the manifestation, epidemiology, and pathophysiology of diseases. We will discuss how gender can be a conditioning factor in health and how it affects mental health throughout the life cycle.

Cultural Influence on Gender and Health

Culture plays a very important role in the behaviors of men and women. Gender differences produce gender inequalities that empower one group to the detriment... Continue reading "Sex, Gender, and Health: Impact on Mental Well-being" »

Passionate Love:

High densities of dopamine, NE but low levels of serotonin.

Introduction to OB

Organisational behaviour is more about individual and team

Human are easy to deceive

Intuition can be wrong

Organisational culture

Definition: It is the shared set of beliefs, expectations, values, norms, and work routines that influence how members of an organization relate to one another and work together to achieve organizational goals.

7 dimension of organizational culture

Innovation/Stability/Respect for people/Outcome orientation/Attention to detail/Team orientation/Aggressiveness

Variability in culture is low than the relationship between outcome and culture is clear

Importance of a strong organisational culture

Organisational identity (like sense of belonging)/Sense-making device/Collective commitment/Social system stability... Continue reading "Understanding Organisational Behaviour and Leadership" »

Emminent Giftedness and high achievement – beyond IQ Renzulli (2002) – intersection of three factors (intelligence, exceptional motivation, high creativity) Simonton (2001) – drudge theory; push themselves harder and benefit more from intensive practice

Winner says hard work may be a result of inborn ability; Gifted are more likely to find efforts rewarding and thus work harder

Cumulative deprivation hypothesis – children raised in substandard environments experience a gradual decline in IQ as they get older because other children will be progressing more rapidly

Studies of adopted children do show similarity to biological parents, but better environment does also have an effect on IQ

Exceptionally reliable – correlations into the .90s

Qualified

Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research

One ethical consideration in psychological research is the use of deception. Deception occurs when a participant is not made fully aware of the purpose of a study or is intentionally misinformed. Researchers often use deception to hide the true aim of an experiment. If participants knew the aim, they might demonstrate demand characteristics, either trying to give the researchers what they want or behaving in a way that makes them look their best, a phenomenon known as the social desirability effect.

Deception is problematic because it undermines the concept of informed consent. It violates the trust between a researcher and a participant. Additionally, it increases the chance that a participant... Continue reading "Ethical Deception in Research & Multi-Store Memory Model" »

Bronfenbrenner: Social/Bio Ecological NO STAGES

The Russian Nesting Doll

Used in the classroom and everyday life

Ignores the roles of cognition and is hard to back up with research

Microsystem:

The people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

Mesosystem:

Connections between microsystems

Exosystem:

Social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

Macrosystem:

Consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

Connected to Piaget

Piaget: Cognitive STAGES

Jaffa Cakes, water beaker, coins

Underestimating children abilities, impact of culture

Sensorimotor:

Birth to 2 years, during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Preoperational:

2 to 7... Continue reading "Developmental Theories: A Comparison of Bronfenbrenner, Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg" »

Cerebellum's Role in Learning

Thompson identified the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) in the cerebellum as crucial for learning. Blocking LIP activity during conditioning prevents learning responses. Studies confirm LIP's necessity for learning, retention, and extinction.

Types of Memory

Short-Term Memory

• For recent events, limited capacity.
• Fades quickly without rehearsal (around 20 seconds).

Long-Term Memory

• For older events, vast capacity.
• Can last for years, aided by cues.

Consolidation

Process of crystallizing short-term memories into long-term.

Working Memory (WM)

Brain system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks (learning, reasoning). Requires simultaneous storage and processing, linked to prefrontal cortex... Continue reading "Cerebellum and Memory: LIP, Hippocampus, and Learning Processes" »

Performance Management and Appraisal

Understanding Performance Management

Performance management is a goal-oriented process that ensures the implementation of processes to maximize productivity at employee, team, and organizational levels. It emphasizes a close relationship between incentives and performance, operating as a dynamic, ongoing, and continuous process. Each component of the system is integrated and linked to achieve continuous organizational effectiveness.

Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal is a formal system for reviewing and evaluating individual or team task performance. Various methods can be employed:

Traits

This method evaluates employees based on traits such as attitude, appearance, and initiative. However, caution is... Continue reading "Performance Management and Appraisal: A Comprehensive Guide" »

What is Socialization?

Socialization is the ongoing process by which we develop our sense of self and learn the ways of society.

Internalization

Internalization is the process by which people take in the values and norms that the agents of socialization are trying to instill.

Social Groups

Groups consist of two or more people who share an identity, feel a sense of belonging, and interact with each other. We can distinguish between:

• In-group: A group you belong to.
• Out-group: A group you do not belong to.

The Importance of Social Contact

Close contact with others is critical to our development. Strong social ties are linked to well-being, while social isolation is detrimental to humans. "Feral" children are an example of the negative effects of extreme... Continue reading "Understanding Socialization: Key Concepts and Theories" »