Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Metastasizing Crisis - Occurs When a Small, Isolated Incident is Not Contained and Begins to Spread

Definitions of Crisis -

• A crisis arises from a traumatic event that is unpredictable and uncontrollable.
• Crisis is a crisis because the individual knows no response to deal with a situation.
• Crisis is a personal difficulty or situation that immobilizes people and prevents them from consciously controlling their lives.
• Crisis is a state of disorganization in which people face frustration of important life goals or profound disruption of their life cycles and methods of coping with stressors. The term crisis usually refers to a person’s feelings of fear, shock, and distress about the disruption, not to the disruption itself.
• Crisis is a temporary breakdown

Child Psychology: Chapter 6 Study Guide

Piaget’s Theory

Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory

• Assimilation
• Accommodation
• Equilibration

Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years)

• Adapting to and Exploring the Environment
• Understanding Objects
• Using Symbols

Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years)

• Egocentrism
• Animism
• Centration

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years)

• Mental Operations
• Reversibility
• Can Solve Conservation Tasks

Formal Operational Stage (11+ Years)

• Hypothetical Thinking
• Deductive Reasoning

Piaget’s Contributions to Child Development

• The Study of Cognitive Development
• A New View of Children
• Fascinating Discoveries

Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory

• Facilitate Rather Than Direct Children’s Learning
• Recognize Individual Differences

Sensation and Perception

Sensation: Receiving stimuli.

Perception: Understanding stimuli.

Selective attention: Focusing on a specific aspect of experience.

Selective perception: Recalling only circumstances that confirm our beliefs.

Cognitive Frameworks

Paradigms (Frames): Theoretical frameworks.

Paradigm shift: Change in the overriding theoretical framework.

Neuroplasticity: Brain's capacity to change based on experience.

Functional fixedness: Getting locked into one way of thinking.

Determinism vs. Free Will

Determinism: Belief in being governed by external forces (biological, Freudian, behavioral).

Free will: Belief in being a result of choices made.

• Internal locus of control: Taking responsibility.
• External locus of control: Blaming others.

Self-Talk

Understanding Personality: Traits and Theories

Big Five Traits:

• Neuroticism: Tendency to experience unpleasant emotions frequently (e.g., depression).
• Extraversion: Tendency to seek stimulation and enjoy the company of others (e.g., warmth, happiness, excitement).
• Agreeableness: Tendency to be compassionate toward others.
• Conscientiousness: Tendency to show self-discipline and strive for achievement and competence.
• Openness to Experience: Enjoyment of new intellectual experiences. (Note: This does not take into account the importance of the situation.)

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis helps to identify clusters and score tests.

Biological Theory

This theory suggests that personality changes according to the environment (reinforcements and punishments)... Continue reading "Understanding Personality: Big Five Traits and Theories" »

Discuss two errors in attributions

Intro:

Attribution = “Correspondence inference theory” = tendency to take someone’s immediate behaviour as a general statement about who that person is

(consider situational as a person's disposition)

Choose 2 to discuss:

1.Fundamental attribution error

- tendency to overestimate the extent to which a person's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors + underestimate the role of situational factors

2.Self serving bias

- explanations for one's own successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors

3.Defensive attribution

- Tendency to blame the victim for their misfortunes

Ross et al. → FAE

• Aim: To see if student participants

How to Improve Low Self-Esteem

1. Supportive Environment

• Show concern for personal problems, interests, status, and contributions.

2. Tailored Work

• Offer work that suits the employee's values, skills, and abilities.

3. Supervisor-Employee Cohesion

• Strive for supervisor-employee cohesiveness and build trust.

4. Self-Management

• Have faith in each employee's self-management ability.

Six Important Elements of Self-Esteem

1. Live Consciously

• Focus on everything you do and who you are doing it with.

2. Self-Acceptance

• Don't judge yourself on every action.

3. Personal Responsibility

• Take action and responsibility for your actions.

4. Self-Assertiveness

• Be original and positive.

5. Live Purposefully

6. Personal Integrity

• Have an honest personality.

The Big Five Personality

Data Gathering Methods

Physical Data Gathering Methods

1. Notes

   • Pros: Good overview, flexible, less intrusive, aids focus.
   • Cons: Can be difficult and slow, requires concentration, potential for bias.

2. Audio/Video Recording

   • Audio combined with photos can add valuable context.
   • Requires explicit permission from participants.
   • Raises potential privacy issues.
   • Requires good quality recording equipment.

Data Gathering Techniques

Surveys

Recruitment

• Define the target population clearly.
• Gather relevant demographic information.

Sampling

• Probabilistic Sampling: Each member has a known probability of being chosen.
  • Example: Census.
  • Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance.
  • Stratified Sampling: Ensures representation from each subset of the population.
• Non-probabilistic

Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (Explicit Learning)

Role of Attention and Awareness

Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis posits that learners must consciously pay attention to and be aware of linguistic input to acquire a second language (L2). This contrasts with implicit learning theories, which suggest that language acquisition can occur subconsciously.

Intake refers to the portion of input that learners successfully process and integrate into their L2 knowledge. Attention plays a crucial role in selecting intake by:

• Heightening the activation level of input in working memory, allowing it to remain available for further processing.
• Facilitating the transfer of information to long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory Functions

Long-term memory serves two primary... Continue reading "Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition" »

Expectancy Theory:

Expectancy Theory: is the idea that people's actions are driven by expected consequences. Behavior based on Vroom’s theory results from conscious choices to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. 1 Effort = Performance Relationship = Expectancy (Resources, Training or Supervision) 2 Performance = Outcome Relationship = Instrumentality (Promise must be fulfilled) 3 Outcome = Personal Goals Relationship = Valence (Money, Promotion, Benefits)

Equity Theory:

Equity Theory: is the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness. Negative and Positive Inequity feelings revolve around a person’s perception of rewards and inputs. People compare themselves with others on a similar level. Negative inequity is perceived if a comparison... Continue reading "Understanding Motivation Theories and Team Development Stages" »