Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

The Behavioral Model of Learning

Definition of Learning (Kimble, 1971)

A more or less permanent change in behavior (or potential) produced by practice or experience.

• Note: Behavioral changes are not always due to practice or experience.
• Human learning tends to occur as a result of successful or adverse experiences.

Key Concepts in Behavioral Learning

• Law of Effect (Thorndike, 1874-1949)

  Behaviors that are followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, and those followed by negative consequences tend to weaken or disappear.

• Termination or Non-Reinforcement (Extinction)

  Responses that are not reinforced reduce the probability of being repeated (e.g., ignoring those who shout the answer without raising their hand).

• Molding (Shaping)

  Teaching a complex behavior

Memory Disorders

Amnesia

Amnesia is the inability to retain or retrieve information, a significant memory disorder. It can stem from organic or emotional causes and may be caused by a shock to the brain.

Chronological Classification of Memory

Anterograde Amnesia

Also called amnesia of fixation, this refers to the inability to learn new information after the onset of a disorder (usually organic) causing amnesia. The patient forgets at the same pace as events unfold. By definition, it concerns recent memory. It is usually reversible, except in some post-traumatic amnesia, Korsakoff syndrome, and irreversible cases of advanced dementia.

Retrograde Amnesia

This is the inability to recall previously learned information after the onset of a disorder (usually... Continue reading "Memory Disorders: Amnesia, Hypermnesia, and More" »

Social Structure and Stratification

• Social Structure: Individuals and organizations that make up society.
• Social Hierarchy: Groups of people ranked based on income, wealth, status, or power.
• Intergenerational Mobility: Changes in social status between generations within a family.
• Social Stratification: Division of society into classes based on power.
• Social Mobility: Movement of individuals or groups within the social hierarchy.
• Meritocracy: System where power is held by those with the most ability.
• Feminization of Poverty: Growing gap between women and men in economic deprivation.

Culture and Society

• Culture: Arts and intellectual achievements of a society.
• Ethnocentrism: Evaluating other cultures based on one's own cultural standards.
• Socialization:

Understanding Personal and Social Autonomy Skills

Adaptive Behavior and Adaptive Skills

This learning involves acquiring a set of habits, personal skills, and social autonomy that enable adaptation to one's environment, or in other words, demonstrate adaptive behavior.

When discussing intellectual disability, it refers to individuals who exhibit substantial limitations in current adaptive functioning. These limitations are typically observed in two or more of the ten recognized adaptive skill areas.

Categories of Adaptive Skills

These skills are crucial for functioning effectively in various aspects of life:

• Life at Home Skills

  Includes skills related to functioning within the home environment.

• Health and Safety Skills

  Skills related to maintaining

Social Marginalization: Definition and Typologies

The Concept of Social Exclusion

Social exclusion is a complex phenomenon, showing various changes over time. Alienation is defined both by its own characteristics and by reference to something that is not owned or is absent. Namely, being marginalized is to be out or outside a particular social reality.

The phenomenon of marginalization is often linked to poverty and the material environment. However, ideological marginalization can occur that does not carry conditions of poverty or indigence. Many authors define marginalization as a situation where an individual or group does not have access to a comparable average level of quality of life.

Objective and Subjective Interpretations

From this definition,... Continue reading "Defining Social Marginalization: Concepts and Group Typologies" »

Labor Motivation and Theories

Multiple Choice Questions

Section 1

1. The motivation is:
   1. Security.
   2. The money.
   3. The recognition.
   4. All of the above.
2. The first level of motivation theories covers:
   1. Social needs.
   2. Basic needs.
   3. Security needs.
   4. Self-realization.
3. ILO stands for:
   1. Internal Labor Organization.
   2. International Labor Organization.
   3. International Love Organization.
   4. None of the above.
4. Notes the correct expression:
   1. The goals of a worker in a developed country are radically different from a worker in a developing country.
   2. The goals of a worker in a developed country are the same as a worker in a developing country.
   3. The goals of a worker in a developed country are slightly different from a worker in a developing country.
   4. None of the above.
5. The term mobbing means:
   1. Sexual harassment.

Understanding Conflict

Basic Characteristics of a Conflict

• Subject or grounds: The relationship of each person on that issue creates conflicting positions.
• Subjects with a different perspective: They have different ideas regarding the matter or wish for different solutions.
• Agreements: The parties try to settle the dispute by agreement or end the conflict through the same.

Causes of Conflict

Causes related to relationships between individuals, groups, or organizations:

• Differing interests or desires.
• Differences in values or beliefs.
• Personal clashes.
• Need to make a decision.

Individual Conflict at Work

Arises between an employee and an entrepreneur. Its purpose is the recognition of a subjective right of individual character.

Collective Conflict at Work

Arises... Continue reading "Conflict Analysis: From Causes to Peaceful Resolution" »

Elements of the Interpretation Process

The participation of sign languages in interpretation introduces specific characteristics that differentiate it from spoken language interpretation. These differences are determined by the nature of sign language and the characteristics of its users:

• Channel Differences: Oral language uses the auditory-oral channel, while sign languages use the visual-gestural channel. These variations affect physical location, visual memory, and interpretation implementation.
• Timing Differences: Spoken language is linear (consecutive words), while sign language is simultaneous (large amounts of content in a short time).
• Grammatical Flexibility: Spoken language grammar is more rigid, whereas sign language is more flexible,

Foundational Systems in Psychology

A psychological system can be defined as an organization and interpretation of data and theories, built upon special budgets (postulates), definitions, and methodological preferences.

In essence, each system represents a particular bias towards the selection of problems, methods, observations, and interpretations within the field of psychology.

Criteria for a Psychological System

1. It should include a clear definition within its field.
2. It should make its results explicit.
3. It must specify the nature of the data to be studied.
4. It should explain the organization of data and its connection principles.
5. It must specify the method used.

Major Psychological Systems and Their Principles

1. Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt / Edward

Definitions of Attitude

An internal predisposition to think, feel, and act towards an object, which is learned and relatively stable. It serves as a mediator between an object and a series of responses from the subject.

Refers to the structure of long-term memory, based on the internalization of scripts (schemas) that encompass a set of beliefs, feelings, and potential behaviors relevant to given situations.

A lasting organization of beliefs and cognitions in general, endowed with an emotional charge for or against a definite object, which predisposes an individual to act consistently with the cognitions and emotions related to that object.

Attitude Structure and Components

The complexity of an attitude implies that it incorporates the following... Continue reading "Understanding Attitudes: Definition, Structure, and Functions" »