Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Causes of Violence

Several factors contribute to violent behavior:

1. Human Evolution and Instinct: Evolutionary factors and inherent aggression.
2. Substance Abuse: The influence of alcohol and drugs.
3. Handguns and Firearms: Access and use of weapons.
4. Socialization and Upbringing: Early life experiences and learned behaviors.
5. Exposure to Violence: Witnessing or experiencing violence.
6. Cultural Values/Subculture of Violence: Societal norms that accept or promote violence.

Rape: Definition and Context

Rape is legally defined as "the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will."

Population density significantly influences rape rates. Metropolitan areas generally have higher rape rates than rural areas, although urban areas have seen a more substantial... Continue reading "Understanding Violence: Causes, Types, and Factors" »

Figurative Language

Figurative language allows speakers and writers to communicate meanings that differ in various ways from what they literally say, especially to express ideas that are difficult to communicate using literal language and to express thoughts in a compact and vivid manner.

Most Common Forms of Figurative Language

• Metaphor: A comparison between ideas from different domains, which can be explicit, as in the case of a simile.
• Metonymy: A salient part of a single knowledge domain is used to represent or stand for the entire domain.
• Idioms: A speaker’s meaning cannot be derived from an analysis of the words’ typical meanings.
• Proverbs: Speakers express widely held moral beliefs or social norms.
• Irony: A speaker’s meaning is usually,

Milgram Obedience Experiment

Stanley Milgram designed an experiment to study how direct commands influence behavior, focusing on obedience – the act of responding to commands. He sought to answer the question: "Under what social conditions are people more likely to obey?"

The experiment involved an authority figure instructing participants to administer electric shocks to a "learner" for incorrect answers. While most people predicted they would stop upon the learner expressing pain, the reality was different. Even with complaints from the learner, most participants obeyed the experimenter's directives, such as "please continue."

Several factors increased obedience: the authority figure's perceived status, their proximity to the participant,... Continue reading "Classic Psychology Experiments and Big 5 Personality Traits" »

Defining Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind. The term originates from the Greek words psyche (meaning soul or breath) and logos (meaning the study of something).

• Scientific: Based on observation.
• Behavior: Observable actions.
• Mind: Subjective experiences such as sensations, thoughts, and emotions.

What Psychologists Do

Psychologists generally fall into three main categories: clinical, applied, and research psychologists.

Clinical Psychologists

Their main focus is diagnosing and treating psychological problems. They work in clinics, hospitals, and private practices. They differ from counseling psychologists, who focus on prevention and specific adjustment issues. Psychiatrists are medical doctors specializing in psychological... Continue reading "Psychology Fundamentals: Science of Mind and Behavior" »

Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory

Four Main Factors Influencing Career Choice

• Genetic Influences
• Environmental Conditions and Events
• Learning Experiences
• Task Approach Skills

Foundation of Krumboltz's Career Theory

Krumboltz’s theory of career decision making and development was based on Social Learning principles.

Parsons's Trait and Factor Theory

Purpose of Parsons's Theory of Occupational Choice

The purpose is to match careers to the talents, skills, and personality of a client.

Role of Assessments in Parsons's Theory

Assessments are necessary to gather the client’s talents, skills, likes, dislikes, and personality. Once this information is gathered, it can be used to help identify jobs or careers for which the client would be a perfect fit.

Ginzberg'

Order of participation of brain structures in sensation and perception: Sensation is the detection of physical stimuli in the environment. Perception is our conscious experience of those stimuli.

Pavlov’s steps of Classical Conditioning: neutral stimulus expects a response because it has become associated with a stimulus that already produces a response (stimuli should be presented close in time in order to work out)

1. Start off with reflexive/natural stimulus response pair ( food→ salvation)

2. Food called unconditioned stimulus, salvation unconditioned response

   (f.Ex:  receives food (UCS) ---> Salivates(UCR))

3. Seeing an experimenter(f.Ex metronome)  will not elicit salivation all by itself
               (f.Ex:... Continue reading "13653 a fire detection system" »

Literal Versus Nonliteral Communication

A: Fancy a whisky?

B: I am a muslim.

B explicitly communicates I AM A FOLLOWER OF THE MUSLIM RELIGION.

B implicitly communicates I DON’T FANCY A WHISKY (BECAUSE IT’S ALCOHOLIC AND MUSLIMS DON’T DRINK ALCOHOL).

The more implicit communication is, the more risky it is. If you say “No, thank you” it’s easier to understand than if you say “I am a muslim”. So... Why engage in implicit communication at all? Needless to say, on many occasions one would not be able to provide the same quality and quantity of information unless one chose an implicit utterance.

Disambiguation

- Retired priest may marry Bruce Springsteen. Senses:

1. A retired priest may perform Bruce’s wedding ceremony
2. A retired priest may

Innermost Regions of the Brain

Innermost regions of the brain are responsible for the basic involuntary functions, while outer regions of the brain are conscious and high-order thinking. The outer layer responsible for these higher functions is called the cortex.

Brain Stem

Base of the brain, it is attached to the spinal cord. The brain stem controls our heartbeat.

Thalamus

Above the brain stem. It receives all the sensory information from our senses (except smell) and sends it to other parts of the brain to process the data.

Cerebellum

Behind the brain stem. It coordinates movement like walking and plays a role in non-verbal learning and memory.

Visual Cortex

Located in the back of the brain. It receives and processes visual information.

Frontal Lobe

General... Continue reading "Understanding the Innermost Regions of the Brain and Its Functions" »

Core Concepts in Social Science

Ontology

Ontology: Vad som existerar och vad det betyder att något existerar (What exists and what it means for something to exist).

• Is the social world fundamentally different from the natural world?
• How do researchers conceptualize what they study?
• Is there an objective reality that exists independently of us, or is it in important respects, subjectively created?

Epistemology

Epistemology: Kunskapsteori, läran om vad man kan veta och hur man kan nå kunskap (Theory of knowledge, the study of what can be known and how to acquire knowledge).

• What type or form of knowledge should we pursue?
• What is legitimate knowledge about the social world?
• How do researchers know what they know?
• What is knowable?

Methodology

Methodology: