Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

1. Family Relationships and Adaptation to Children with Developmental Disabilities

A. Start of the Family

A strong foundation within the family is crucial for addressing crisis situations. If the couple has a solid relationship, the birth of a child with a developmental disability can strengthen their bond. However, if the relationship is already fragile, it may lead to separation.

B. Expectations of the Child

Parents often have preconceived expectations about their child's development. They need professional support to make informed decisions about pregnancy or potential termination if a disability is detected prenatally.

C. The Birth of the Child

The birth of a child with a disability can trigger a crisis involving several phases:

• Shock: Expectations

Molar Analysis

Molar analysis assesses behavior from a global or general perspective. This analysis does not specify individual details. Behavior can be classified according to its consequences or its contents:

• Based on consequences:
  • Suitable: If the consequences of the conduct are positive for the person and others.
  • Inadequate: If the consequences are negative for the person or others.
• Based on the contents of the conducts:
  • Assertive Behavior: Behaviors that allow a person to express themselves properly in accordance with their interests and goals, respecting the rights of others. This behavior shows the individual as they are, and not how they would like to be. It involves being able to maintain their own ideas, make and receive criticism, and

The Language of Humans and Animals

Animal Communication vs. Human Communication

Stereotyped behavior in animals: rigid patterns of behavior.

Animal communication primarily focuses on obtaining resources and survival, often involving behavioral intervention with significant learning.

Human communication is characterized by the transmission of culture.

Types of Behavior

1. Instructive and stereotyped behavior.
2. Complex, innate, and flexible behavior.

Human language is inherently abstract, conceptual, and symbolic.

Language Emergence and Function

Factors in Language Emergence

Language emergence is linked to the development of bipedalism, which facilitated the development of the phonatory system, increased cranial capacity, and resulted in the development of... Continue reading "Human Language, Communication, and Cultural Development" »

Functions of Social Institutions

Social institutions fulfill critical roles within society, categorized into positive functions that promote stability and negative features that can hinder individual adaptation.

Positive Functions of Social Institutions

• Simplify Social Control: Institutions generalize ways of behaving and thinking, which are internalized during the socialization process.
• Provide Established Roles: They provide individuals with established forms of relationships and roles, to which members merely adapt.
• Agents of Coordination and Stability: They act as agents of coordination and stability for mass culture, satisfying various social needs.
• Behavior Regulators: They serve as behavior regulators, generating conformity and social expectation,

Profile Moderator

Essential Skills

• Strong speaking and body language skills
• Positive and constructive attitude
• Ability to develop personal relationships with group members
• Ability to manage interpersonal conflicts within the group
• Critical thinking skills
• Ability to motivate and encourage others
• Knowledge of game development and techniques
• Improvisation skills

Understanding Group Dynamics

Social Network Parameters

• Structure: Group size, frequency of interaction, social position within the group.
• Quality: Degree of group cohesion.
• Interaction: Characteristics of relationships.
• Function: The specific role of each individual.

Effective communication is crucial for successful profile moderation.

Dynamism Styles

Autocratic Control

• Constantly issues directives.
• Expects

Types of Research Studies

Exploratory Studies

• Objective: To examine an issue or research problem rarely studied or not yet addressed.
• Increase familiarity with little-known phenomena.
• Rarely an end in themselves.

Descriptive Studies

• Aim to specify the important qualities of any phenomenon to be tested.
• Select a range of issues and measure each independently to describe what is being researched.
• Require considerable knowledge of the area under investigation to formulate specific questions.
• Can offer rudimentary predictions.

Correlational Studies

• Aim to measure the degree of relationship between two or more variables.
• Measure two or more variables in the same subjects to determine if they are related, then analyze the correlation.
• Their usefulness lies in

Understanding Gender Indicators

Indicators of gender have developed in our culture, and perhaps in all cultures of the world, to meet the need to differentiate men from women. At birth, one could say that we are largely uniform; however, from a young age, we are constantly strengthening our behavior to align ourselves with established behavioral patterns. For example, a child might be encouraged to play soccer or engage in active play, while a girl might play with dolls.

Society, therefore, holds significant power and influence over the large mass of the population, encouraging behavior through convention. This includes dress and grooming requirements that successfully fulfill sex indicators. Furthermore, we possess secondary sexual characteristics... Continue reading "Societal Influences on Gender, Mate Selection, and Communication" »

Understanding Hypotheses and Variables

The word "hypothesis" has Greek roots: thesis, which means "what goes", combined with hypo, a particle meaning "under." So, a hypothesis is "what goes underneath."

Assumptions and Variables

Assumptions are theoretical statements, unverified, but likely references to variables or the relationship between variables. So, what is a variable? A variable is an observable characteristic of something. Variables are subject to change or variation, adopting different values. They can be categorized and are interrelated. Scientific research revolves around them.

The Role of Variables in Research

The purpose of scientific work is to discover the existence and magnitude of variables and to test the relationships that bind... Continue reading "Understanding Hypotheses and Variables in Research" »

Effects of Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse poses significant emotional risks for victims. These reactions are often stronger when the aggressor is a family member or when the abuse occurs repeatedly, making the victim feel guilty for not being able to prevent it.

Gender Differences in Victim Reactions

Boys may be more likely to become perpetrators in the future, while girls tend to exhibit more anxiety-depressive reactions.

Initial Effects (Within Two Years of the Abuse)

1. Towards the offender and/or relatives: Mistrust, fear, hostility, running away, and antisocial behavior.
2. Towards oneself: Shame, guilt, and low self-esteem.
3. Emotional state: Anxiety, anger, and depression.
4. Sexuality: Excessive curiosity, sexual precocity, and child prostitution.
5. Other issues:

Root Causes and Characteristics of Problems

Problems usually result from the following factors:

• Poor Communication

  Conversations become frustrated or fail to reach a mutual understanding.

• Unknowns (Insufficient Information)

  This occurs due to insufficient or missing information.

• Incorrect Information

  When part of the known data or facts is wrong.

• Confusion

  This arises when people or the history involved cause disorientation regarding incentives and options.

• Hidden Emotions

  These are feelings that surface as we analyze the situation.

• Differing Viewpoints

  When one person and another (or others) have conflicting ideas.

• Variable Impressions

  When investigating a situation or event, ideas, emotions, and explanations sometimes change dramatically as the investigation