Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Socialization

Socialization is the process by which individuals within a society or culture learn and internalize a code of norms, values, and ways of perceiving reality. This provides them with the skills needed to function successfully in social interactions with other individuals.

Agents of Socialization

Primary Socialization

This is the first socialization that an individual goes through in childhood, and through it, they become a member of society. This occurs in the early years and primarily involves the family. It is characterized by a strong emotional charge. Primary socialization ends when the concept of the generalized other is established in the individual's conscience. At this point, the individual is an effective member of society.... Continue reading "Socialization and Social Groups: Understanding the Basics" »

Specific Methods

Axiomatic Method (Formal Sciences)

Responsible for forms (e.g., 2 + 2), consisting of symbols and conjunctions.

An axiom is a fundamental truth that cannot be doubted.

A theorem is a truth deduced through axioms.

Rules: Modes of operation.

Axiomatic System Characteristics:

• Independence: Cannot be inferred or proven from another axiom.
• Consistency: Deriving something and its opposite from an axiom is not possible. It must be demonstrated.
• Completeness or Decidability: Whether a statement is an axiom or a theorem; true or false.

Experimental Method

Based on experience and used as criteria to validate conclusions through experimental verification. Characterized by the degree of control that allows manipulation and treatment of situational... Continue reading "Exploring Scientific Methods: Axiomatic, Experimental, and More" »

Integrative Theoretical Models of Crime

The Theory of Stress, Social Control, and Social Learning

These authors propose two paths that may lead to criminal behavior. The first, and likely the most common, begins with a weak link to conventional society. This is coupled with negative experiences that foster proximity to and involvement with groups engaged in criminal activity. The second path starts with a strong link to conventional society, but this link is weakened by various experiences and failures in achieving socially prescribed goals. These experiences may include limited opportunities, negative labeling, and conflicts within the family or community. Consequently, this leads to contact with and joining groups of offenders.

Links or controls... Continue reading "Understanding Crime: Factors, Theories, and Trends in Spain" »

Understanding Human Motivation

By Pablo Murillo

Motivation is a process or series of processes that initiate, manage, maintain, and finally stop a sequence of goal-directed behavior. It is the process by which stimuli, objects, mental representations, and images, as variables involved in human behavior, acquire causative value. This causative value is exercised over all behavior because motivation has intimate connections with attention, memory, learning, and other cognitive processes.

Memorandum: Conditions that cause, maintain, and regulate behavior.

These motives are not observable variables but hypothetical constructs: we can infer them from observable behaviors.

Levels of Motivation

Primary or Biological Motivation

• It is about the survival of

Who Are Our Role Models?

True role models embody qualities we admire and inspire us to become better versions of ourselves. They encourage us to advocate for our beliefs and take leadership on important issues. We often don't recognize our true role models until we've experienced personal growth. For example, I believe I serve as a temporary role model for my younger sister, though she may not admit it yet. A role model is someone whose behavior, example, or success can be emulated by others, especially younger people.

It's fascinating to hear who people admire; it's not always who you'd expect. It's crucial for individuals to see themselves reflected in decision-makers.

The Psychological Impact of Role Models

Role models are psychologically... Continue reading "The Importance of Role Models" »

Understanding Emotions

Anger

Anger arises when we face frustration or aversion. It energizes us to take action, providing renewed vigor after a frustrating experience, enabling defense or achievement of goals.

Hostility

Hostility is a complex emotion blending anger, disgust, indignation, contempt, and resentment. It lacks a specific facial expression, but can lead to anger and violence.

Humor

Humor emerges after a non-serious error, producing laughter and positive feelings. A smile and laughter are its expressions. It relaxes us, mitigates negativity, and benefits mental and physical health.

Happiness

Happiness fosters positive reception and interpretation of environmental stimuli. More durable than fleeting pleasure, it seeks emotional stability.... Continue reading "Exploring Human Emotions: From Anger to Love" »

Types of Behavior

Aggressive Behavior

Individuals exhibiting aggressive behavior use violence, which can be verbal (e.g., yelling, insults), physical (e.g., threatening posture, personal attack), or psychological (e.g., contempt, indifference).

Passive/Inhibited Behavior

Passive or inhibited behavior involves prioritizing others' needs and interests over one's own. This can lead to avoiding confrontations and discussions to maintain status and affection within a group.

Assertive Behavior

Assertive behavior is rooted in respect for oneself and others. It involves expressing thoughts and feelings openly, upholding one's rights while respecting the rights of others.

Cognitive Functions

Cognitive functions are the processes through which individuals acquire,... Continue reading "Understanding Cognitive Functions and Behavior" »

Intelligence and Learning

Intelligence

Intelligence: A person's capacity to learn, understand, reason, and synthesize knowledge, enabling them to respond and adapt to circumstances.

Theories of Intelligence

One of the most widely accepted theories: Factors of Intelligence.

This theory posits that individual differences in cognitive abilities can be expressed in terms of several distinct, yet not completely independent, mental abilities. These factors include:

• Verbal Ability
• Numerical Ability
• Verbal Fluency
• Reasoning
• Perceptual Ability
• Spatial Ability

Sensory-Perceptual Process

Sensory Process: The process by which humans receive information from our environment through the senses (physiological stage).

Perceptual Process: The organization and interpretation... Continue reading "Human Intelligence, Perception, and Learning Methods" »

Emotions

Types of Affection

Emotion

• Strong, immediate, and short-lived emotional reactions.
• Clear organ involvement.
• Relatively standardized behavioral response.

Feeling

• Diffuse, softer, and durable affective reactions.
• Mild organic and behavioral reaction.

Dimensions of Emotions

• Tone: How the emotion is experienced (positive-negative, pleasant-unpleasant).
• Intensity: Degree of physiological arousal (blushing, trembling), personal experience (feeling a strong emotion), and later behavior (more or less strong reaction).
• Duration: Short or long-lasting.

Biological or Mental Issue?

• Zajonc: Emotions are biological processes, preceding or following cognition but distinctly different.
• Lazarus-Ellis-Beck: Emotion is post-cognitive. Interpretation of the situation