Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Discrimination and Prejudice: Impact on Minorities

Discrimination and prejudice are common features of minority groups. While these words can sometimes be used interchangeably, they can also represent two separate but related conditions. Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership. It involves behavior. Prejudice is an unsupported generalization about a category of people. It refers to attitudes.

Forms of Discrimination

Discrimination can be found on an individual or societal level. Individual acts range from name-calling to acts of violence, potentially leading to physical harm or even death. Societal discrimination can appear in one of two forms: legal or institutionalized.

• Legal discrimination

Definitions and Concepts

1. Victim Impact Statement: Statements given by victims in court about the incident in which they were offended. These statements are considered in determining the sentence.
2. Identity Theft: Occurs when an individual obtains a false identity to commit identity fraud.
3. UCR (Uniform Crime Report): The annual report published by the FBI.
4. Socialization: The process through which people learn rules, morals, and values.
5. Limited Jurisdiction: When a court hears and decides cases within a specific area.
6. General Deterrence: A punishment given to an individual meant to prevent or deter offenders from criminal activity in the future.
7. Cybercrime: Crimes that are committed by electronic means.
8. Serial Killings: When someone kills single victims

The Importance of Respect

The importance of respect is a great topic explained by Juan and Roberto. This presentation shows the importance of respect in our life. Respect has great importance in everyday life. It gives us to think about our lifestyle, ideas, customs and social behaviour of society. The awareness about respect must be explained to everyone from the childhood. In my opinion, we should know how to socialize in our civilization because we are who create relationships. Cultural differences play a significant role in this topic. We all different by our ethnicity, culture or colour of skin, but we are all humans. In this since, we are equal, and we should love and respect to each other.

The STAR Method

The STAR method is a structured... Continue reading "The Importance of Respect and Academic Communication" »

Understanding Stress

Nature of Stress

1. Stress is a reaction to change.
2. It can be positive (eustress) or negative (distress).
3. Generally, stress stimulates the release of hormones like adrenaline, leading to:

• Quickening of heart rate
• Accelerating metabolism
• Preparing the body for emergency action (fight or flight response)

Therefore, recognizing the sources and effects of stress as early as possible is necessary for effective coping mechanisms.

Stress Analogy

• Stress is like salt and pepper in food. In moderation, it can be beneficial.
• However, if the quantity increases, it can make food taste bad and lead to health problems.

Impact of Stress Levels

• Excessive stress can create numerous health problems, both physically and psychologically.
• Conversely, if stress

Syntagm and Paradigm: Linguistic Relationships

Syntagmatic relationships are about positioning. Paradigmatic relationships are about substitution.

Consider these examples:

• John ate an octopus.
• An octopus ate John.

These two sentences use the exact same words (syntagms), but convey very different meanings because the order (the syntagmatic relationship) of the words changed.

Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics

Diachronic linguistics is the study of changes in language over time. Synchronic linguistics is the study of the linguistic elements and usage of a language at a particular moment.

Diachronic analysis can encompass the general evolution of all languages or the evolution of a particular language or dialect.

Discourse and Discursive Formation

Discourse

Refers

Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology:

The application of psychological principles and theories to the workplace.

Scientist/Practitioner Model:

An approach used to train I/O psychologists maintaining that because I/O psychologists are both generators and consumers of knowledge, training must be focused on both theory and application.

Competencies:

The skills, behaviors, and capabilities that allow employees to perform specific functions.

Dissertation:

A unique piece of scholarly research that is usually the last hurdle before obtaining a PhD.

My Alpha and Army Beta:

Mental ability tests developed by I/O psychologists during World War I that were used to select and classify army personnel.

Science:

A process or method for generating a body of knowledge.... Continue reading "Understanding I/O Psychology and Research Methods" »

Topic 7: Social Retention

1. Socialization

Concept: Socialization occurs on various levels, including pre-socialization, which begins even before an employee is hired. The socialization process typically involves three stages, starting with initial orientation and integration programs (induction).

2. Content of Socialization

This section explores what individuals learn during socialization, focusing on the attributes of the best-socialized individuals.

3. Voluntary Departures and Retention

This section examines the voluntary departures of organizational members and strategies for improving employee retention.

4. Effects of Voluntary Exits

This section discusses the potential adverse effects and surprising benefits of voluntary exits.

Topic 8: Training

Foundational Figures and Concepts in Sociology

Auguste Comte is recognized as the father of sociology. The term sociological imagination was coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills in 1959 to describe the type of insight offered by the discipline of sociology.

The Milgram Experiment and Obedience

In the Milgram experiment, an experimenter instructed people to administer increasingly painful electric shocks to a subject; two-thirds of participants fell into the category of obedient subjects.

Durkheim on Suicide and Social Cohesion

Émile Durkheim argued that suicide is caused by social factors, not just individual psychological ones. Anomie suicide occurs when a person experiences a sense of disconnection from society and a feeling of... Continue reading "Key Sociological Concepts and Theoretical Perspectives" »

Realistic Job Preview A realistic job preview (RJP) conveys both positive and negative job information to the applicant in an unbiased manner.

Interviewer Bias Often, a problem arising in interviews is interviewer bias, where interviewers make incorrect assumptions about interviewees, influencing selection decisions.

Reference checks validate information from applicant contacts, providing additional insight and verifying accuracy.

Negligent hiring is an employer's liability for failing to reasonably investigate an applicant's background, assigning a potentially dangerous person to a harmful position.

Selection Decision

Medical Examination: Typically, a job offer is contingent on the applicant passing this examination, determining their physical... Continue reading "Effective Recruitment and Selection Practices" »

Introduction

Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology. Their theories have shaped our understanding of the relationship between individuals and society, particularly in the context of industrial capitalism.

Similarities in Theories

Division of Labor and Social Class

All three theorists recognized the profound impact of the division of labor and social class on individuals and society. Durkheim's concept of"organic solidarit" emphasized the interdependence of individuals in an industrial economy, while Marx's"dialectical materialis" highlighted the conflict between owners and workers.

Alienation

Marx and Weber both emphasized the concept of alienation, arguing that industrial capitalism alienated workers... Continue reading "Theories of Durkheim, Marx, and Weber: Individuality and Society in Industrial Capitalism" »