Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erikson proposed eight stages of development – A period of life that is characterized by a specific underlying organization

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Cognition: The process of organizing and making meaning of Experience:

Four stages of cognitive development:–Sensorimotor Stage (0-18 months)–Preoperational Stage (18 months-6 years)–Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)•Enables scientific reasoning–Formal Operational Stage (11 Years on)–Knowledge is created through active engagement–Novelty promotes Cognitive development

Thanatology  The Field of science that addresses dying and death, as well as the psychological Mechanisms of coping with them

Integrity  the Ability to accept the... Continue reading "Divided attention" »

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Studies employing quantitative methods are often statistically sophisticated.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research studies prioritize interpretive observation.

Sociological Paradigms

Symbolic Interactionism

This paradigm emphasizes interaction and meaning as central to society. It assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction.

Conflict Theory

This paradigm posits social conflict as the basis of society and social change. It emphasizes a materialistic view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change. This perspective highlights the role of power and coercion in producing social order.

Structural Functionalism

This paradigm... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Sociology: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Mead's Theory of Social Self

Mead's theory of social self is based on the perspective that self emerges from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with others, and responding to others, among other factors.

The Social Aspect of Self

The social aspect of self is an important distinction because other sociologists of Mead's time believed that the self was based solely on biological factors and inherited traits.

Development of Self

Mead believed that the self is not present from birth but is developed over time through experiences and activities.

Reflexivity in Mead's Theory

Reflexivity plays a fundamental role in Mead's theory of mind. Vocal gestures allow individuals to hear their own gestures in the same way that others hear them.... Continue reading "Mead's Theory of Social Self: Emergence, Reflexivity, and Development" »

Consciousness: the subjective awareness of internal and external events

Hot spots: Allocating police resources to geographic location with high crime.

Communication Across Cultures is Necessary due to:

1- outsourcing 2- offshoring  3- Global supply chains

High Context Cultures

q1- Place high value on relationships

qFavor indirect communication

qAssign meaning to shared history, nonverbal signals, and the Context of the message

Multicultural Communication Guidelines

qUnderstand how your own culture shapes your beliefs, values, and Behaviors.

qLearn about other cultures while keeping an open mind and Respecting differences.

qAdapt to variations in cultural communication patterns.

qOvercome language barriers.  

Steps in the Job Analysis Process

1. Determine who will do the analysis and get top management buy-in the process.

2. Choose jobs that are critical to the success of the company and have a sufficient number of employees in them.

3. Review what has already been written about the job. One important source of information is the Occupational Information Network.

4. Select job agents, people who will provide job information, such as incumbents (people currently doing the job), supervisors, or job analysts (experts).

5. Collect job information through interviews, questionnaires, and observations.

Job Analysis Techniques

Job analysis interview: Face-to-face meeting with the purpose of learning about a worker’s duties and responsibilities.

Job analysis questionnaire:... Continue reading "Job Analysis Process: Steps, Techniques, and Results" »

What is communication? And its objective and significance

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, or feelings between individuals or groups using various methods and mediums. It is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and plays a crucial role in conveying messages, sharing knowledge, building relationships, and achieving various objectives. Communication can occur through verbal and non-verbal means, including spoken or written language, body language, gestures, facial expressions, and more.

Objectives of Communication:

1. Information Sharing: One of the primary objectives of communication is to convey information from one party to another. This can include sharing news, updates, instructions, or data.

2. Understanding:

Common Sociological Concepts

• Achieved Status
• Agents of Socialization
• Aggregate
• Alienation
• Anomie
• Apartheid
• Appearance
• Ascribed Status
• Assimilation
• Authoritarianism
• Belief
• Blue-Collar
• Body Language
• Bourgeoisie
• Bureaucracy
• Capitalism
• Capitalist Class
• Caste System
• Category
• Class System
• Clique
• Commoners
• Communism
• Conflict Theory
• Conformists
• Control Theory
• Counterculture
• Crime
• Crime Against the Person
• Crime Against Property
• Cultural Diffusion
• Cultural Relativism
• Culture
• Culture of Poverty
• Culture Shock
• Democracy
• Deviance
• Dominant Culture
• Dyad
• Economy
• Education
• Ego
• Endogamy
• Ethnocentrism
• Ethnomethodology
• Exogamy
• Formal Organization
• Gender Role
• Gender Socialization
• Global Stratification
• Globalization of Capitalism
• Government
• Group
• Group Dynamics
• Id
• Ideal Type
• Ideology
• In-Group
• Inner Controls
• Institution
• Law
• Macrosociology
• Manner

Understanding Workflow Definitions

Workflow analysis is the process of describing and registering a job's goals, its principal accountabilities and activities, the conditions under which it is performed, and the required knowledge, skills, and aptitudes.

It is used when establishing:

• The organization's structure
• Job structure
• Levels of authority
• Control levels
• Performance criteria
• Redundant employees
• Counseling

There are strong relations between job analysis and:

• Organization's goals
• Technology
• HR planning
• Employee recruitment and selection
• Performance evaluation
• Training
• Compensation
• Career planning and management
• Health and life quality at the workplace

The influence that job design has on employee satisfaction, motivation, and performance has been known since... Continue reading "Job Analysis and Recruitment: Best Practices" »