Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Five Functions of Augmented Feedback

The five functions of augmented feedback include:

• Information to correct performance errors: This involves efferent copy and receiving intrinsic feedback from cutaneous receptors, senses, and muscles.
• Positive reinforcement: Used to strengthen correct performance, it must follow immediately after a movement. Examples include the satisfaction of scoring, moving your body exactly as intended, or receiving external compliments.
• Negative reinforcement: These are unpleasant properties that a learner wants to avoid. Removing them will strengthen the movement. Internal examples include seeing a basket miss and feeling sad; external examples include hitting a barrier when a jump was not high enough.
• Punishment: Used

Key Subfields and Specializations in Psychology

• Behavioral Genetics

  Studies the inheritance of traits related to behavior.

• Behavioral Neuroscience

  Examines the biological basis of behavior.

• Clinical Psychology

  Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.

• Clinical Neuropsychology

  Unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders.

• Cognitive Psychology

  Focuses on the study of higher mental processes.

• Counseling Psychology

  Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.

• Cross-Cultural Psychology

  Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups.

Performance Management and Appraisal

Understanding Performance Management

Performance management is a goal-oriented process that ensures the implementation of processes to maximize productivity at employee, team, and organizational levels. It emphasizes a close relationship between incentives and performance, operating as a dynamic, ongoing, and continuous process. Each component of the system is integrated and linked to achieve continuous organizational effectiveness.

Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal is a formal system for reviewing and evaluating individual or team task performance. Various methods can be employed:

Traits

This method evaluates employees based on traits such as attitude, appearance, and initiative. However, caution is... Continue reading "Performance Management and Appraisal: A Comprehensive Guide" »

What is Socialization?

Socialization is the ongoing process by which we develop our sense of self and learn the ways of society.

Internalization

Internalization is the process by which people take in the values and norms that the agents of socialization are trying to instill.

Social Groups

Groups consist of two or more people who share an identity, feel a sense of belonging, and interact with each other. We can distinguish between:

• In-group: A group you belong to.
• Out-group: A group you do not belong to.

The Importance of Social Contact

Close contact with others is critical to our development. Strong social ties are linked to well-being, while social isolation is detrimental to humans. "Feral" children are an example of the negative effects of extreme... Continue reading "Understanding Socialization: Key Concepts and Theories" »

Key Sociological Theories

• Symbolic Interaction Theory: Focuses on the symbolic meanings that people develop and rely upon through social interaction as they grow.
• Conflict Theory: Argues that conflicts arise when resources, status, and power are unevenly distributed between groups, serving as the engine for social change.
• Functionalist Theory: Examines how social order is maintained and the structures that allow a society to remain relatively stable.
• Labeling Theory: Suggests that people identify themselves and act in ways that reflect how others have labeled them, influencing perceptions and behaviors. This theory is often used to explain criminal and deviant behavior.
• Game Theory: Interprets human relationships, interactions, behaviors, and experiences

Psychiatry: Affective Disorders

Systemic of Affective Disorder (Mood Disorders)

1. 1. 1. What is leadership? How has it shifted from the old to new paradigm. 

      An influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purpose. The changes are from stabilizer to change manager. From Controller to facilitator. The shift is that effective leaders share power instead of hoarding it. The focus moves toward employees and more empathy. 

      2. How does the trait approach to leadership differ from the behavior approach? Give an example of each.

      The Trait approach bases its approach on characteristics such as intelligence. The idea is that people are already born with these traits or not. The behavior approach focuses less on traits and more on behaviors that leaders engage in and are these

Advantages of Focus Groups

• Synergism: When a group of people with similar interests discuss an issue together, they are likely to produce richer insights, a wider range of information, and innovative ideas than individual responses obtained privately.
• Snowballing: In a group discussion, one person's comment often triggers a chain reaction from the other participants and generates more views.
• Stimulation: Once the focus group discussion is underway, the general level of excitement over the topic increases, and a large number of respondents want to express their ideas and expose their feelings.
• Security: Because of the homogeneity of composition, focus group participants often share similar feelings. This enables them to feel comfortable and uninhibited

• Cognition: All mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, and communicating. We use concepts (mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, people. Ex: chairs mean many items. Prototypes mental image or best example of a category. Easy method to sorting items into categories. Ex: robin/bird.
• Strategies of Cognition: Algorithm (logical rule of procedure/step by step/guarantees a solution to a problem. Heuristic (simpler strategy/speedier than algorithm/more error-prone. Insight (not a strategy based, flash of inspiration, solves a problem.
• Obstacles of Cognition: Confirmation Bias: Peter Wason, predisposes to verify/search information that supports our perceptions and ignore or contradictory evidence. Mental Set: Fixation, prevent