Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Adverse Impact

Unintentional discrimination against a protected group.

Employee Screening

The process of reviewing information about job applicants to select individuals for jobs.

Clinical Approach

Subjectively combining sources of information based on the general impression of the hiring specialist.

Least Valid Employee Screening Test

Handwriting analysis.

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Refers to the stability of a measure over time, or the consistency of the measure.
• Validity: Refers to the accuracy of inferences or projections drawn from measurements.

Parallel Forms

A method of establishing the reliability of a measurement instrument by correlating scores on two different but equivalent versions of the same instrument.

Criterion-Related Validity

There... Continue reading "Effective Employee Screening and Selection Strategies" »

Bronfenbrenner: Social/Bio Ecological NO STAGES

The Russian Nesting Doll

Used in the classroom and everyday life

Ignores the roles of cognition and is hard to back up with research

Microsystem:

The people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

Mesosystem:

Connections between microsystems

Exosystem:

Social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

Macrosystem:

Consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

Connected to Piaget

Piaget: Cognitive STAGES

Jaffa Cakes, water beaker, coins

Underestimating children abilities, impact of culture

Sensorimotor:

Birth to 2 years, during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Preoperational:

2 to 7... Continue reading "Developmental Theories: A Comparison of Bronfenbrenner, Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg" »

Cerebellum's Role in Learning

Thompson identified the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) in the cerebellum as crucial for learning. Blocking LIP activity during conditioning prevents learning responses. Studies confirm LIP's necessity for learning, retention, and extinction.

Types of Memory

Short-Term Memory

• For recent events, limited capacity.
• Fades quickly without rehearsal (around 20 seconds).

Long-Term Memory

• For older events, vast capacity.
• Can last for years, aided by cues.

Consolidation

Process of crystallizing short-term memories into long-term.

Working Memory (WM)

Brain system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks (learning, reasoning). Requires simultaneous storage and processing, linked to prefrontal cortex... Continue reading "Cerebellum and Memory: LIP, Hippocampus, and Learning Processes" »

Five Functions of Augmented Feedback

The five functions of augmented feedback include:

• Information to correct performance errors: This involves efferent copy and receiving intrinsic feedback from cutaneous receptors, senses, and muscles.
• Positive reinforcement: Used to strengthen correct performance, it must follow immediately after a movement. Examples include the satisfaction of scoring, moving your body exactly as intended, or receiving external compliments.
• Negative reinforcement: These are unpleasant properties that a learner wants to avoid. Removing them will strengthen the movement. Internal examples include seeing a basket miss and feeling sad; external examples include hitting a barrier when a jump was not high enough.
• Punishment: Used

Key Subfields and Specializations in Psychology

• Behavioral Genetics

  Studies the inheritance of traits related to behavior.

• Behavioral Neuroscience

  Examines the biological basis of behavior.

• Clinical Psychology

  Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.

• Clinical Neuropsychology

  Unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders.

• Cognitive Psychology

  Focuses on the study of higher mental processes.

• Counseling Psychology

  Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.

• Cross-Cultural Psychology

  Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups.

Performance Management and Appraisal

Understanding Performance Management

Performance management is a goal-oriented process that ensures the implementation of processes to maximize productivity at employee, team, and organizational levels. It emphasizes a close relationship between incentives and performance, operating as a dynamic, ongoing, and continuous process. Each component of the system is integrated and linked to achieve continuous organizational effectiveness.

Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal is a formal system for reviewing and evaluating individual or team task performance. Various methods can be employed:

Traits

This method evaluates employees based on traits such as attitude, appearance, and initiative. However, caution is... Continue reading "Performance Management and Appraisal: A Comprehensive Guide" »

What is Socialization?

Socialization is the ongoing process by which we develop our sense of self and learn the ways of society.

Internalization

Internalization is the process by which people take in the values and norms that the agents of socialization are trying to instill.

Social Groups

Groups consist of two or more people who share an identity, feel a sense of belonging, and interact with each other. We can distinguish between:

• In-group: A group you belong to.
• Out-group: A group you do not belong to.

The Importance of Social Contact

Close contact with others is critical to our development. Strong social ties are linked to well-being, while social isolation is detrimental to humans. "Feral" children are an example of the negative effects of extreme... Continue reading "Understanding Socialization: Key Concepts and Theories" »

Key Sociological Theories

• Symbolic Interaction Theory: Focuses on the symbolic meanings that people develop and rely upon through social interaction as they grow.
• Conflict Theory: Argues that conflicts arise when resources, status, and power are unevenly distributed between groups, serving as the engine for social change.
• Functionalist Theory: Examines how social order is maintained and the structures that allow a society to remain relatively stable.
• Labeling Theory: Suggests that people identify themselves and act in ways that reflect how others have labeled them, influencing perceptions and behaviors. This theory is often used to explain criminal and deviant behavior.
• Game Theory: Interprets human relationships, interactions, behaviors, and experiences

Psychiatry: Affective Disorders

Systemic of Affective Disorder (Mood Disorders)