Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Major Depression

Major Depression; Symptoms: insomnia, anorexia, psychomotor agitation, anxiety, anhedonia, lack of concentration, recurring ruminations, suicidal ideation, guilt, low mood.

Drugs: SSRIs (e.g., Zoloft, Prozac), fish oil: disadvantage in young people. Prozac can cause suicidal ideation. Antidepressants can cause lower norepinephrine (NA) levels.

Therapy: CBT, Logotherapy, Mindfulness, Psychodynamic therapy.

Co-occurring: PTSD, Anxiety, ADHD.

Impulse Control & Conduct Disorders

These are problems in emotional and behavioral self-control.

Symptoms:

• Five stages: impulse, tension, pleasure from act, relief from urge, guilt.
• Gambling is an impulse control disorder.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

Childhood disorder characterized by anger-... Continue reading "Depression, ADHD, Conduct & Impulse Disorders — Symptoms and Treatment" »

Formation of Stereotypes

1. Social Identity Theory: Categorization of individuals into groups.
2. Conformity: Adopting beliefs to fit into a social group.
3. Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship between events or behaviors where none exists.

Effects on Behavior and Cognition

• Stereotype Threat: The risk of conforming to negative stereotypes about one's social group.
• Diagnosis: Stereotyping may negatively influence clinical diagnosis and treatment outcomes.
• Memory: Stereotypes function as schemas, which can lead to memory distortion.

Case Study: Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

Aim

To investigate the illusory correlation between group size and negative behavior.

Method

• Participants read descriptions of two groups (A and B) containing positive and negative

Conversation Analysis

• An approach to studying social interaction, encompassing verbal and non-verbal conduct in everyday life.

• Seeks to uncover how members of a society create a sense of social order.

• CA posits that the meaning of an action derives from its placement within a series of actions. For example, "I did it too" only makes sense in context.

• It establishes its own assumptions, methodology, and theoretical framework.

• Its primary concerns are the organization of knowledge, social order, sense-making, social rules, and structures within interactions.

Ethnomethodology

• A sociological perspective focusing on how people interpret their everyday world.

• "Analysis of ways of doing and knowing".

• Its central focus is connecting knowledge, action, and context.

What Are Humans According to Bandura?

We will talk about this in the context of Zillmann's Mood Management theory, because it helps to understand what are the basic notions of Zillmann's theory. Zillmann was based on the premise that humans are hedonists, pleasure seekers. In Zillmann's and in the whole exposure research following him, the assumption was that people are hedonists. But if we look at the reasons why they do what they do, they should be more specific than saying they are looking for a pleasant state of mind. It would not be possible to explain people's use of media from which they suffer, if you assume that people are hedonists. With Bandura it is a different story. Bandura's model is a complex picture, a mix between environment,... Continue reading "Bandura's Model: Understanding Human Behavior and Observational Learning" »

Perceptual Grouping

Perceptual Grouping is the tendency to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern. This includes:

• Continuity: Only the obvious continuous patterns or relationships are considered.
• Closure: The perceptual process will close gaps that are unfilled from sensory inputs. We may see a whole where none exists or may not see what exists.
• Proximity: Nearness states that a group of stimuli that are close together will be perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. For example, students coming out of a lecture hall.
• Similarity: The greater the similarity of stimuli, the greater the tendency to perceive them as a common group. For example, a group of people coming out of an office building demonstrates proximity

Fundamentals of Ethology

Ethology is the study of animal behavior, considering the what, how, and why. A key method in this field is observation, while avoiding anthropomorphism—the projection of human emotions or motivations onto animals.

• Proximate questions: Ask how and consider the mechanics of an animal's body.
• Ultimate questions: Ask why and consider the benefits versus the costs to fitness.
• Cost-Benefit Analysis: Evaluates the fitness benefits of a behavior against its risks (e.g., health, survival, and reproductive output).

Biological Fitness and Behavior

Biological fitness is your contribution to the gene pool of future generations. Adaptive behavior increases this fitness. Natural selection acts on behavior just as it does on physical... Continue reading "Principles of Ethology and Ecology: Behavior and Evolution" »

A Composite Map of Social Class in the U.S.

The upper class
Wealthiest Americans earning more than $180,800 a year, owning large suburban homes, driving new luxury cars. Wealth comes from investment income (usually). About 5% of all American households.
The upper middle class
Well-off professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, professors, with incomes ranging from about $100,000 to about $180,000 or so. About 15% of all American households.
Lower Middle Class
Skilled services, office workers, skilled craftsmen, with household incomes from about $38,000 to about $100,000. About 40% of American households.
Working Class
Factory workers, mechanics, office workers, etc. About 20% of American households. Income from about $20,000 to $38,000.
The lower class
People... Continue reading "Social Class in the U.S.: Inequality, Mobility, and Gender" »

Research Design Types

Cross-Sectional Design

• A cross-sectional design is used for research that collects data on relevant variables one time only from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena.
• A cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of the variables included in the study at one particular point in time.
• Cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, for example, the U.S. Census.

Advantages

• Data on many variables
• Data from a large number of subjects
• Data from dispersed subjects
• Data on attitudes and behaviors
• Good for exploratory research
• Generates hypotheses for future research
• Data useful to many different researchers

Disadvantages

• Increased chances of error
• Increased cost with more subjects and each location
• Cannot measure

Metaphors for Culture in a Global Village

Global access to the world village means we don't have to leave home. This interaction is often described with metaphors:

• Melting Pot: Cultures blend together into one.
• Fruit Salad: Cultures are mixed but remain separate and distinct.
• Pizza Supreme: Cultures are held together by a cohesive bond (the cheese).

The Role of Language and Non-Verbal Communication

Kinesics, Proxemics, and Chronemics

Kinesics, the study of body language and gestures, plays an important role in communication. Other key areas include Proxemics, which involves preferences for space, and Chronemics, which involves preferences for time.

The Nature of Language

Language is symbolic. A symbol is an arbitrarily selected, learned “sign” that... Continue reading "Core Concepts in Culture, Language, and Communication" »

The Case of Henry Molaison (Patient H.M.)

Henry Molaison, most known as patient H.M. (1921–2008), suffered from severe seizures. In an attempt to cure his epilepsy, he underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, during which his hippocampus was removed. At the age of 27, following this major surgery, his seizures ended, but his ability to form new explicit memories was lost. While his epilepsy was controlled, he suffered from heavy anterograde amnesia. His working memory and implicit memory remained intact, but he could not add new events to his explicit memory. His old memories remained untouched, but from that day forward, he was forced to "live in the present."

His case is arguably the most influential in the study of memory and has... Continue reading "Psychology Fundamentals: Memory, Gender, and Perception" »