Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Evolution of Modern Science and Philosophy

The Emergence of Modern Science

Modern science emerged between the 15th and 17th centuries as philosophy began to acquire its own independent status. The first field of research to gain independence was astronomy, triggered by the Copernican Revolution, which proposed the substitution of the geocentric paradigm with a heliocentric one. Subsequently, Kepler challenged the notion of circularity in the movement of the sublunar world.

Galileo and the Experimental Method

Galileo Galilei utilized the telescope to consolidate this new model, famously stating "eppur si muove" (and yet it moves) despite opposition from the Inquisition and the scholastic mentality, which relied on revealed truth. Galileo is... Continue reading "The Evolution of Modern Science and Its Philosophical Roots" »

Socrates (470-399 BC):

Marks a before and after in philosophy. Although he did not write anything, is considered the father of philosophy.

Plato (427-347 BC):

He was a pupil of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. His vast work, always in the genre of dialogue, bought most of the themes on which he has devoted the subsequent philosophical reflection.

Aristotle (384-322 BC):

He was a pupil of Plato and mstre of Alexander the Great. His extensive work beyond the purely philosophical. Was devoted to biology, logic, rhetoric, physics ...

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274):

For many historians, is considered the greatest exponent of the scholastic philosophy. In its extensive production are theological and philosophical embrace the Aristotelian and Christian... Continue reading "Contemporary Approaches on Ethics" »

Branches of Philosophy

• Metaphysics: Reflections on everything that exists, making it the general discipline.
• Epistemology: Explores the possibility, origin, and limits of knowledge, also questioning the criteria of truth.
• Logic: Studies valid reasoning, guaranteeing the attainment of true conclusions.
• Ethics: Addresses how individuals should behave, what constitutes good, and the nature of happiness.
• Political Philosophy: Deals with the best way to live and the organization of the state. It addresses issues such as democracy, human rights, and justice.
• Aesthetics: Concerned with the problem of art, it attempts to answer the question: "What is beauty?"

Characteristics of Philosophy

• Rational: Employs logical arguments, demonstrations, and conscious thought.

Humanistic Texts

Humanistic texts refer to any disciplines related to human beings, their knowledge, and development (philosophy, history, literature, etc.).

Essay

The author addresses a theme and develops it subjectively with argumentative rigor, but without verifiable data provided by the sciences.

Morphosyntactic Features

• Evaluative adjectives

• Verbs in 3rd person singular. Impersonal tone and impartiality.

• Prevalence of the indicative mood; subjective judgments marked by the subjunctive.

• Plural of modesty (1st person plural).

• Gnomic expressions (express statements as universal truths) and the historical present.

• Long, periodic syntactic structures in the development of arguments.

Lexical-Semantic Features

• Abstract terms (refer to ideas and concepts)

Thomas Aquinas: Reason and Faith

Thomas Aquinas explores the relationship between reason and faith. His theology is based on this relationship, asserting that knowledge beyond reason or experience is accessible through revelation and reason. Theology, therefore, becomes a paramount science.

Rationalized Theology of Thomas Aquinas

1. Faith and Reason are Distinct: Reason, based solely on experience, can solve problems within the realm of reality but cannot progress further without faith.
2. Common Truths: There are three common truths: the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, and natural law ethics.
3. No Conflict: Conflict between reason and faith is impossible. Apparent conflicts indicate either misinterpretation of reason or misunderstanding

Determinism

Determinism suggests that humans possess the ability to choose, yet they always decide necessarily. Types of determinism include:

• Physical Determinism: Humans are part of nature and subject to inexorable physical laws.
• Biological Determinism: Behavior is determined by chemical reactions in the endocrine and nervous systems.
• Social Determinism: Human behavior is shaped by social pressure, rules of conduct, and values.
• Educational Determinism: The influence of upbringing and learning on human action.
• Theological Determinism: Our will is determined by a superior divine force that cannot be resisted.
• Psychological Determinism: Decisions are determined by the strongest underlying reasons.

Indeterminism and Moral Agency

Indeterminism posits that... Continue reading "Determinism vs Indeterminism: Philosophical Perspectives on Human Freedom" »

Curriculum Vitae

A Curriculum Vitae (CV) is a document that records and synthesizes information regarding a candidate's academic background and work experience for a job application. Its primary purpose is to secure a job interview where the provided information can be expanded upon.

Classical Curriculum Vitae

Data is typically presented in the following order:

Personal Information

Education

Courses taken, name of institution, years enrolled or graduated, and title obtained.

Complementary Skills

Relevant courses, seminars, and any other useful skills.

Professional Experience

Work experience, company name, tasks performed, and duration. Explain reasons for leaving previous positions and list jobs in reverse chronological order (most recent first).

Functional

Descartes' Methodological Doubt

Descartes' methodological doubt reflects a pivotal historical movement, aiming to establish a process for discovering the first indubitable truth. He presents a situation of crisis and disorientation in the pursuit of knowledge.

There are two key moments in this process:

• Negative Moment: Suspending judgment on anything that can be doubted.
• Positive Moment: The consequence of this doubt is the discovery of the first true and certain knowledge.

Central to this process are several hypotheses of doubt:

• The Senses Hypothesis: Our senses sometimes deceive us, making them unreliable sources of knowledge.
• The Dream Hypothesis: It's possible that everything we believe to be real is merely a dream.

These first two hypotheses primarily... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt and Divine Proofs" »

The Theory of Ideas in Plato's Philosophy

All Platonic philosophy revolves around the Theory of Ideas (or Forms). However, it is not easy to interpret the exact meaning of this theory, as it is not explicitly detailed in any single dialogue.

Early Dialogues and Socratic Ethics

In the early dialogues, the Theory of Ideas was inspired by Socratic ethics: To be virtuous, it is necessary to know what each virtue is. That is, we must find out the commonality present in human actions that allows us to claim they are virtuous. That "something common" is a universal essence.

The Theory of Ideas in Maturity

In the dialogues of maturity, the Theory of Ideas underwent a significant transformation. It can be summarized as follows:

• Intelligible Essences: The

Plato's Intellectual Framework: Historical Setting

The Decline of Athens and the Crisis of the Polis

The intellectual work of Plato developed during the first half of the fourth century BC. The previous century, the Fifth Century BC, was the period of Athenian greatness, known as the "Age of Pericles," marked by victory in the Persian Wars (or Median Wars) against the Persians.

However, by the end of that century (431–404 BC), Athens had suffered a heavy defeat against Sparta in the Peloponnesian War and subsequently endured a year under the government imposed by the enemy, known as the "Thirty Tyrants." This marked a period of decline that the restoration of democracy in 403 BC could not fully overcome. Ultimately, Athens would be dominated,... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Historical Context and the Athenian Crisis" »