Foundations of Scientific Methodology and Theory

Composition of Science

Science consists of two primary elements:

• Object of knowledge: What is known through science.
• Method of study: The systematic approach used to investigate science.

Ontological Presuppositions

These are the qualities possessed by the reality studied by science. Without these qualities, science would lack a foundation. They serve as the basis for the axiomatic method.

The Axiomatic Method

Formal sciences utilize the deductive axiomatic method. This involves proposing a limited set of truths (axioms) from which all other truths in the system are derived through a deductive chain. Initial truths are axioms (unprovable), while derived truths are theorems. Formal sciences are organized into axiomatic systems.

Scientific Theory

Laws relate to one another to form theories. A theory is an intellectual structure that develops within a particular field of knowledge to explain specific phenomena, such as Wegener's theory.

Structure of Scientific Theory

A theory consists of principles or axioms (higher laws) and theorems (laws derived from axioms). While axioms may not be directly provable, theorems must coincide with the phenomena they describe. Axioms often exist beyond direct experience.

Steps of the Hypothetical-Deductive Method

1. Observation of the phenomenon.
2. Proposal of a hypothesis to explain it.
3. Experimentation of the hypothesis.
4. Verification or refutation of the hypothesis based on experimental results.

The Question of Method

Following a fixed sequence of rational steps has driven the advancement of knowledge.

Kuhn and the Paradigm

A paradigm is a concept introduced by Thomas Kuhn in his work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. A paradigm serves as the reference theory for a field of knowledge at a specific historical moment.

• Normal Science: Periods when a paradigm is universally accepted.
• Scientific Revolution: Periods triggered when a paradigm is challenged by new discoveries, leading to intense activity to establish a new paradigm.

Origin and Development of Science

• Formal Sciences: Mathematics and Logic, originating in ancient Greece. Logic saw little improvement until the 19th century, while mathematics has progressed steadily since the 15th century.
• Natural Sciences: Began in antiquity and have experienced continuous growth since the late Middle Ages.
• Human Sciences: Began in antiquity, but significant development occurred in the 19th century with the addition of fields like economics and sociology.

Induction

Induction is the process of stating general laws or formulas from particular cases. It is a mechanism widely used in the formation of scientific laws.