Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Concepts: Ancient to Modern

Natural Concepts and Aristotelian Science

The natural concept, stemming from nominalist philosophy, applies across all fields. Natural science, in this view, distinguishes itself from Aristotelian science. For Aristotle, nature was the principle of movement; a being is natural if it possesses life.

Ockham and Mathematical Thinking

Ockham's mathematical thinking, influenced by Galilean motion, posits that narrative events (symbols) must be measurable and expressible mathematically. He sought the laws of phenomena, believing that true nature reveals itself. Ockham suggested that our mind is limited, while God is unlimited (or perhaps we do not know God, or we are gods). The human mind can only grasp things... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: From Ancient Ideas to Modern Science" »

The Moral: Since human freedom allows a person to be both the builder and the building, one is responsible for oneself and one's actions. Therefore, a free action is also a moral action.

The Nature of Moral Action

Human action is characterized by great flexibility for learning. Human behavior is defined by being open and free; this openness to action makes human beings responsible for their individual acts. Before a given action, an individual reflects, makes a decision, and acts accordingly. One must answer for it and be willing to receive recognition or admonishment from oneself and others. This free character of human action is the basis of moral character.

Defining Morality

Definition of Moral: A code of rules governing individual and collective... Continue reading "Human Freedom and the Foundations of Moral Action" »

1. Descartes' Methodical Doubt

Overcoming Doubt

Descartes' methodical doubt, unlike radical skepticism, is provisional. The goal is to find a truth that is undeniable.

The Purpose

Descartes' method begins with a diagnosis applied to the era. Humanity is like a sick man who must free himself from his sickness. Descartes decides that the path to truth must undergo a destructive critique of everything we know with certainty.

The Method

Descartes' method is like having faith in critique. It is a seemingly impossible task. He asks skeptical questions, directly attacking the foundations of our knowledge. He applies skepticism to doubt our senses and reason.

1.1 First Argument: Senses and Reason

We cannot trust our senses because they often deceive us (e.... Continue reading "Methodical Doubt in Descartes' Philosophy" »

Empiricism and the Role of Sense Experience

Empiricism is characterized by the value placed on sense experience, minimizing the role of reason regarding reality. The consequence of this approach was that it was not possible to speak of ultimate reality or establish any general principle unless it was feasible for experimental testing. Demonstrating moral truth could only be a feeling or a guide to support value judgments that serve as a criterion in making moral decisions.

Hume: Reason, Sentiment, and Morality

As famously stated, reason is the slave of the passions. Sentiment has to do with pleasure and taste. Virtue is defined as any action that produces a pleasant feeling, and vice is the contrary.

Nietzsche: The Death of God and New Values

Nietzsche'... Continue reading "Major Philosophical Theories of Value and Morality" »

Ethics: Definition and Etymology

Ethics originates from the Greek ethos, referring to character and various aspects of decision-making and responsibility. It is a branch of philosophy that determines the concept of good and evil within specific cultural contexts to improve practical existence. Ethics analyzes the moral life of humans, teaching how to live well and focusing on preferences. It justifies our actions, choices, and behavior, underlying our morality. In essence, ethics and moral philosophy examine human life situations, justify human choices, forge character, and provide living standards.

Morality: Definition and Etymology

The word moral has its roots in the Latin word mos, meaning 'custom' or 'usual'. The moral universe is defined... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Principles and Philosophical Traditions" »

Descartes' View of Mind and Body

Descartes' anthropology presents man as a composite of two distinct substances: res cogitans (the thinking substance or soul) and res extensa (the extended substance or body). These substances are considered independent and autonomous.

The Mind-Body Problem

Two important questions arise from this dualism: how do these substances relate, and how do they communicate? Their relationship is undeniable: when the soul gives orders, the body obeys. Descartes' duality of man is a direct result of his metaphysical dualism.

Since the understanding has a clear and distinct idea of thinking substance and a clear and distinct idea of extended substance, it is evident that these are two different, independent substances. This... Continue reading "Descartes: Mind, Body, and Reality" »

Rights and Duties Arising Out of Employment Contracts

Rights and duties are complemented in Articles 4 and 5 of the Workers' Statute. Although these refer to the worker, it must be understood that they are reciprocal; what is stated in Article 4 as worker's rights shall be the duty of the employer. Similarly, under Article 5, the worker's duties must be understood as rights of the employer.

Key Employment Rights

• Effective Employment: The worker has the right to actually perform their work. If the employer fails to provide this, they must pay the worker and reschedule the hours.
• Right to Development: The possibility of promotion within the company if a vacancy exists and the worker fulfills the necessary requirements.
• Right to Vocational Training:

Matter and Form: The Hylomorphic Structure

Matter is what a thing is made of, i.e., what might take on a certain structure. Shape equals Structure.

Subject: We have water in the apple, sugar, vitamins, and colorants. The shape is something that makes me understand what the substance is, but its shape may vary because it can be red, can lose water to become acidic, and so on.

We speak of the same material but different shapes, as it is called an apple. The figure is as it appears: for example, Clay can be an ashtray, a vase, and so forth.

(For Aristotle, the soul is what shapes the body, your disposition, etc. It has to do with the matter, as in all human beings; the figure is what differentiates one human being, but one can be a normal person like... Continue reading "Aristotle's Hylomorphism and the Nature of Change" »

Nihilism: The Death of God and the Crisis of Values

Nihilism is often viewed as a consequence of Christianity and a passive approach to life. It represents a denial of life itself. Nihilism leads to the loss of traditional values, which inevitably triggers anger and despair. When the world lacks clear explanations and origins, the nihilistic attitude becomes deeply linked to the Will to Power—the desire to reduce or overcome the collapse of traditional structures.

Those caught in the cycle of nihilism typically pass through distinct stages:

• Awareness: Recognition of the failure of religion, morality, and metaphysics.
• Resistance: Initial efforts to maintain old values despite their decay.
• Assimilation: The struggle with self-hatred and destruction

Plato's Philosophy of Knowledge

Plato believed that the philosophy of knowledge is distinct from mere technical skill. Philosophical knowledge, which concerns humanity and the fundamental principles governing the world, is not systematically acquired by everyone. Indeed, it is a great misfortune to be unaware of one's own ignorance.

Understanding Non-Wisdom

Non-wisdom, or ignorance, is characterized by being aware of what is false, or believing one knows when one does not.

Knowledge, Perception, and Truth

Plato argued that true knowledge is not derived from perception. Truth, in its purest form, transcends mere appearances. Perceptions of objects, their forms, and their shapes are variable and constantly changing. Since what is detected by the senses... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge and Reality" »