Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

1. Descartes' Methodical Doubt

Overcoming Doubt

Descartes' methodical doubt, unlike radical skepticism, is provisional. The goal is to find a truth that is undeniable.

The Purpose

Descartes' method begins with a diagnosis applied to the era. Humanity is like a sick man who must free himself from his sickness. Descartes decides that the path to truth must undergo a destructive critique of everything we know with certainty.

The Method

Descartes' method is like having faith in critique. It is a seemingly impossible task. He asks skeptical questions, directly attacking the foundations of our knowledge. He applies skepticism to doubt our senses and reason.

1.1 First Argument: Senses and Reason

We cannot trust our senses because they often deceive us (e....

Historical Context of René Descartes

Descartes' Life and Major Works

René Descartes, born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye en Touraine (now Descartes), France, studied at the Royal College of La Flèche. In 1616, he graduated in law from the University of Poitiers. Between 1620 and 1628, he traveled extensively in Germany, Italy, Holland, and France. In 1629, he retired to Holland, where he wrote and published his major works:

• Discourse on the Method (1637)
• Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)
• Principles of Philosophy (1644)

He died on February 11, 1650.

17th Century Europe: A Period of Change

Descartes' life coincided with the genesis of modern Europe, marked by the emergence of powerful nations like France, England, and Holland. The seventeenth...

Kant's Enduring Moral Philosophy

Kant's moral philosophy is praised for its advocacy of wider recognition of human dignity and its confidence in human progress. Indeed, the categorical imperative remains a profound proposal because it places humanity as the supreme end and goal.

Human rights are perfectly attuned to the categorical imperative, promoting respect and complying with the mandatory condition of being universally desirable as a standard of behavior. Currently, some thinkers doubt the validity and universality of human rights, despite the occurrence of facts incompatible with these rights and the categorical imperative.

Reason, Peace, and Global Governance

Kant and the Enlightenment propose that reason should rule the world. In his brief...

Key Concepts in Logic and Language

• Logical Structure: Represents the structure of reality or organizes the theories and arguments with which we structure reality and discuss it.
• Ambiguity: The ability to understand something in several ways, admitting multiple interpretations, potentially leading to confusion.
• Paradox: A statement that appears accurate but may lead to a contradiction.
• Contradiction: Saying the opposite of what was previously stated or denying what is considered certain.
• Metalanguage: A language used to describe another language.
• Object Language: The language being described by the metalanguage, often referring to objects.
• Use: Designating something using linguistic expressions and terms in place of the object itself. Use occurs within

What is an Ethical Theory?

Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality. Ethical theories provide the rationale for explaining the moral behavior of individuals. These theories represent an effort of thought to understand the human condition and offer a coherent and profound explanation of our actions.

Various Ethical Theories

Ethical theories can be broadly divided into two groups:

• The ethics of conviction: These theories start with the question, "What is the end towards which we direct our actions?" They are interested in the purpose or the consequences that we enjoy if we follow a set of rules.
• Ethics of duty: These ethics do not ask what will make us happy, but what we are obligated to do as human beings endowed with reason. These theories

Descartes' Critique of Scholasticism and Experience

Descartes, formed in scholastic philosophy, warned that this philosophy did not respond to the issues and concerns of its time. Instead, he found in mathematics a secure and rigorous science used to develop his method. In empirical experience, the subject is passive, and the knowledge that experience provides is doubtful. In contrast, in mathematics, the subject is active, leading to clear and certain knowledge. This certainty stems from the knowledge itself, without recourse to experience.

Therefore, Descartes departs from experience and seeks reason as the foundation of his method and the justification of all knowledge.

Defining the Cartesian Method

Descartes defined his method as: “a certain...

Children and Literature

Definition

Children's literature is the body of written works addressed to children from birth to adolescence, covering topics of relevance and interest to children of those ages, through prose and poetry, fiction, and nonfiction.

Children's books are about the experiences of childhood, both good and bad. The content of children's books includes diverse topics that are of interest to children, such as dinosaurs, Egyptian mummies, world records, and fighter planes.

The manner helps to define children's books. Forthright, humorous, or suspenseful manners are appropriate for young readers.

Quality in writing has to do with originality and importance of ideas, imaginative use of language, and beauty of literary and artistic style....

Essential Vocabulary for The Scarlet Letter

This list defines key terms and concepts central to understanding the themes, social dynamics, and moral conflicts in Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter.

• Adultery: Having a sexual relationship with someone who is not your husband or wife.
• Punishment: Something unpleasant given to someone for doing something wrong.
• Shame: A painful feeling of being embarrassed because of something wrong.
• Guilt: The feeling that you have done something wrong.
• Sin: An action considered morally or religiously wrong.
• Sinner: A person who has done something morally or religiously wrong.
• Forgive: To stop being angry with someone for something they did.
• Redemption: The act of becoming free from guilt or blame.
• Judgment: An opinion

DAY 1 -Introduction & the Deal-Making Mindset 

- Negotiation : "A form of decision making in which 2 or more parties talk with one another in an effort to resolve their opposing interests" - Lewicki, Barry & Saunders (2016) (A technique for resolving conflicts and overcoming differences.

                - 3 Goals of effective negotiation

1. Achieve a wise outcome - agreement satisfies the interests of both parties, is fair, and is sustainable over time (Eg: 2 parties explore alternative payment plans or service bundles that better meet both sides' needs

2. Preserve or enhance the relationship - strengthens trust, respect & ongoing collaboration

3. Be efficient - time, energy & resources are limited - a good negotiation reached...

Key Characteristics of Insurance Contracts

Insurance is bilateral and identifies both goods and people. There is a payment in exchange for covering risks, and it is subrogatory. It is formal in nature.

Parties Involved in the Policy

• Insurer
• Insured
• Policyholder
• Beneficiary

Formal Aspects and Policy Content

It is mandatory that the contract is in writing according to regulations. The policy must be drafted in the official languages of Spain. The content must include:

• Name, surname, or company name of the contracting parties, address, and assignment of the insured and the beneficiary.
• The concept in which it is insured.
• Nature of the risk covered.
• Designation of the insured object and its location.
• Sum insured and scope of coverage.
• Amount, surcharge, and