Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Alternative Definitions of Truth

A primary challenge regarding the correspondence theory of truth is avoiding a vicious circle. Truth is defined as stating what is real—that which is objective and exists in the world. However, the only path to determine what is real is through existing theories about reality.

For this reason, alternative theories have emerged:

• Truth as Coherence: This theory posits that knowledge is true if it does not contradict other established beliefs. Any statement that can be integrated into a system of beliefs without contradiction is considered true. Consistency is essential in formal sciences like mathematics, though it does not guarantee correspondence with reality in empirical sciences such as physics or chemistry.

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

This text delves into the philosophy of René Descartes, a prominent figure born in 1596 in Touraine, France, who passed away in 1650 in Sweden. He is recognized as one of the leading representatives of Modern Philosophy and is widely considered the father of Rationalism. His most important work, Discourse on Method, outlines the necessity for a new philosophical method, fundamentally based on mathematical deduction. Other significant works include Meditations on First Philosophy (often referred to as Metaphysical Meditations), Treatise on the World, Principles of Philosophy, and Rules for the Direction of the Mind. Descartes's thought emerged as a significant outcome of the Humanist and Scientistic movements. He became the chief representative... Continue reading "René Descartes: Architect of Modern Rationalism" »

La Libertad: Freedom and Moral Autonomy

Freedom as a Presupposition of Morality

La Libertad. The ideas of metaphysics are presented theoretically or scientifically, but when they are assumed as conditions of the possibility of morality they have a different significance. Freedom is a presupposition of morality: we cannot speak of morality unless we begin by accepting that human beings can be free.

Phenomenal and Noumenal Aspects of the Human

A human being can be considered as a natural, sensitive (phenomenal) subject to the laws of nature, but may also be considered as a free subject of rationality and free will that allows one to rise above or be thought of apart from the laws of nature (noumena). If we take the human as merely natural and believe... Continue reading "Freedom and Moral Autonomy: Metaphysical Foundations" »

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)

Immanuel Kant was a man of manners who followed a very precise routine. The people of the city set their clocks by his afternoon walk: every day he went through the same place at the same time. He led a life that was, strangely, very interesting. He never married, never fell ill, and did not leave his hometown in East Prussia. However, Immanuel Kant was a great thinker. He died at age 80.

Kant's Philosophical Revolution

We come to know things when men reach their limits. From this issue arises a revolution, manifested in an illustrated project.

Awakening from Dogmatism

It starts with an awakening. Kant says that this awakens philosophy from the dream of all dogmatic philosophers. Kant's metaphysics leads to a trial court:... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Philosophy: Reason and Knowledge Limits" »

Ethics and Morality: The Science of Conduct

The distinction between morality and ethics, though sometimes considered artificial, is based on its undoubted utility. Morality refers to the set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given moment. Ethics, conversely, is the theoretical reflection on the behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.

Understanding the Moral Act

Actions that are likely to be approved or rejected by society are considered acts of moral evaluation. For an act to be considered morally accountable, it must possess specific characteristics:

• An act is aware when the subject clearly knows what they are doing.
• An act is voluntary when the subject intends to do what they do and chooses from several options.

The Marxist Concept of Ideology

The Marxist concept of ideology defines it as the set of beliefs and doctrines that shape the culture of a society in every era. Ideological forms reflect the material conditions of human existence.

Ideology is a reflection of reality projected by social awareness, but it inevitably distorts the economic alignment and self-awareness of society. Thus, ideology is not only false consciousness, but also an instrument of oppression in the hands of the ruling class.

Ideological Instruments of Oppression

• Religion: Marx famously called religion “the opium of the people” because it numbs the proletariat's awareness of exploitation with the promise of a better life.
• Philosophy: An idealistic interpretation of reality that

Core Principles of Empiricism

• 1. Negates the existence of innate ideas.
• 2. Denies the existence of absolute truths.
• 3. Denies the existence of absolute truths (reiterated).
• 4. The whole truth must be tested.
• 5. Negates all suprasensible realities.
• 6. It must be admitted that man is partial and imperfect.

Major Works of David Hume

• A Treatise of Human Nature (Criticizes the Cartesian approach).
• An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals.

Theory of Knowledge

All knowledge comes from experience. Hume classifies two types of perceptions:

• Impressions: The direct, vivid image or immediate sensation.
• Ideas: Memories or mental images that are more or less weak.

Knowledge comes from the certainty provided by experience and the association of ideas.

Hume's Distinctions

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

To the rationalist, metaphysics was the body of knowledge to which man can reach by his own lights, sound as a carrier of these ideas since birth. These innate ideas are embedded in humans and can be discovered without the help of experience, just by thinking. For rationalists, the metaphysical has to develop and organize the rest of knowledge, based on innate and obvious truths.

For the empiricist, all knowledge comes from outside, from what our senses pick up. So for them, there are no innate ideas, but a mind, initially 'virgin', in which experience is typed. They denied any possibility of metaphysics, and dogmatism and moral consequences are derived from all of this. In denying the metaphysical, everything is reduced... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Bridging Rationalism and Empiricism" »