Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The 13th Century: A Historical and Intellectual Apogee

The historical framework for the thought of Thomas Aquinas is the 13th century, an era within the Middle Ages, a period spanning from the mid-11th century to the late 15th century. Following several centuries characterized by rigid social structures and material limitations, known as the "Dark Ages" (until the 11th century), Europe reached its apogee in the 13th century.

This century was the stage for the renewed struggle between the Emperor and the Pope, a conflict that resulted in the triumph of the papacy (papal theocracy). It was also a golden age for:

• Theology and scholastic philosophy
• The consolidation of municipalities and the bourgeoisie
• The emergence of universities
• The rise of mendicant

The father of rationalism, Descartes, can be compared to philosophical empiricism, which posits experience as the sole basis of human knowledge. This idea was born in Britain and developed during the 17th and 18th centuries. Closely related to the Enlightenment, it influenced subsequent philosophies, particularly those rooted in the principles of political liberalism.

John Locke: Challenging Innate Ideas

The first major empiricist was Locke, the founder of the theory of knowledge. His starting point contrasts with Descartes' philosophy, which is based on mathematical rigor. Locke's main criticism of Descartes is the affirmation of innate ideas. To demonstrate this, he offers several arguments:

• Neither the mad nor children possess these fundamental

Aristotelian Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotelian ethics pursues an ultimate end: the highest good. For Aristotle, the supreme goal is happiness (eudaimonia).

The Path to Human Flourishing

The path to the good for any being is to fully realize its inherent nature or function. Therefore, for human beings, this good—this happiness—is achieved by fully realizing their unique function or essence: being completely rational. However, because this rational character is central, achieving this end depends on our freedom and will.

Reason, Balance, and the Contemplative Life

This rational pursuit also encompasses various goods for a well-rounded life. While these goods are sought in pursuit of happiness, to truly lead us to it, they must be ordered... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics: Virtue, Reason, and True Happiness" »

Capital: A Core Factor in Bourgeois Society

Capital: One of the three factors constituting modern bourgeois society. It consists of all types of installations that, in collaboration with labor, produce goods for consumption. Capital is the element that enables the existence of the capitalist bourgeoisie.

Material Conditions: Triggers of Socio-Economic Processes

Material Conditions: A set of conditions that make something possible. For Marx, the ultimate triggers of all processes are socio-economic conditions.

The State: Sovereignty and Superstructure in Marxist Thought

The State: A political institution not subject to any other political body; that is, it possesses sovereignty. It should possess a permanent population, a defined territory, and a... Continue reading "Key Marxist Economic & Social Concepts" »

Science, Philosophy, Religion, and Ethics

• Science: Rigorous and objective, it is based on observable data and is subject to verification. Scientific knowledge is not judgmental.
• Philosophy: Rigorous, objective, and rational, it goes beyond what is observable without falling into myth, belief, or groundless speculation. It is specifically rational and rationally justified, representing evaluative knowledge.
• Religion: Provides explanation and valuation, going beyond science. It is not exclusively rational. Beliefs are based on faith in something that is not provable, not on factual evidence or rational arguments.
• Ethics: Rational reflection on good and evil, including the principles and foundations of moral norms and values.

Instinct, Morality, and

The Transformative Stage of Adolescence

Adolescence is a crucial stage between childhood and adulthood. It is a period of significant biological transformation that enables individuals to reach maturity and the capacity for reproduction.

Core Objectives of Adolescence

During this period, individuals work towards several key objectives:

• Developing their cognitive and emotional capacities.
• Building their own personal identity.
• Acquiring new social skills, developing an autonomous morality, forming new relationships, and taking on student and labor roles.

The Search for Identity

Self-esteem is the ability of each person to establish their identity. An identity crisis can be caused by several factors:

• The introjection of masculinity or femininity, contrasted

Nietzsche's Philosophical Concepts

Nihilism and the Three Transformations

Nihilism is a radical and absolute negation. In Nietzsche's philosophy, nihilism appears in the stages of transformation, a process reflected in the theoretical development starting with humans as camels, carrying the weight of tradition and religion in life. This transforms into the lion, which manages to destroy traditional morality.

At this stage appears nihilism, when humanity, in its evolution, reaches a stage of absolute denial regarding religion. This concept is introduced in the book The Gay Science, published in 1882, announcing the death of God, a theme that recurs throughout Nietzsche's works. This is when there is a risk of losing ideals; one discovers that previous... Continue reading "Nietzsche on Nihilism, Mill on Liberty" »

David Hume's Science of Human Nature

David Hume's philosophy centers on the two fundamental areas that constitute Human Nature (HN): the world of rationality (knowledge) and the world of feelings (morality).

The Foundation of Humean Empiricism

Hume's main purpose was to establish a rigorous science of Human Nature based on the principles of scientific empiricism. According to this framework, any idea (thought) must be traceable back to an original impression. Impressions are clear and evident; they are not argued against because they are perceived by the senses or are internal manifestations characteristic of human nature.

The Science of Human Nature is fundamentally based on the science of man, proposing a knowledge capable of answering the question:... Continue reading "David Hume's Philosophy: Establishing the Science of Human Nature" »

What is Conflict?

Conflict can be defined in several ways:

• It represents crisis situations that arise when the concerns of two or more people seem incompatible.
• An interpersonal conflict is a relationship between two or more people who seek goals that cannot be achieved simultaneously under certain conditions.

Causes and Areas of Conflict

Common Causes

Conflicts can arise from various factors, including:

1. Egocentricity
2. Insincerity
3. Hostility
4. Rebellion
5. Disunity
6. Servility
7. Low self-esteem
8. Authoritarianism
9. Emotional isolation
10. Lack of assertiveness

Common Areas

Conflicts often center around:

• Different perceptions of facts
• Disagreements on methods
• Conflicting goals
• Differing values

Conflict Management Styles

There are several ways to approach conflict:

• Withdrawal: Sacrificing

Synthetic A Priori Judgments

Distinguishing Types of Judgments: Kant explores various types of judgments to determine the characteristics of scientific knowledge. He differentiates between analytic and synthetic judgments, as well as a priori and a posteriori judgments.

Analytic and Synthetic Judgments

Analytic Judgments: In analytic judgments, the predicate is contained within the subject. For example, "All bachelors are unmarried." These judgments do not provide new information; they are not extensive.

Synthetic Judgments: In synthetic judgments, the predicate adds new information to the subject. For example, "All bachelors are happy." These judgments are extensive, broadening our knowledge.

A Priori and A Posteriori Judgments

A Priori Judgments: