Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Thomistic Ethics and Politics

Thomistic Ethics

Like Aristotle, for Aquinas, the ultimate object of moral activity is to achieve the perfection of human nature itself, which is none other than the pursuit of happiness. However, this happiness cannot consist in the possession of anything created; only in God can one find true happiness. An act is good if it leads to this ultimate end, and bad if it departs from it. To differentiate, we must rely on their agreement or not with natural law, which is a moral norm.

For Aquinas, natural law is a law accessible to reason and is a participation of the eternal law of God. He is considered a foundational figure in natural law theory. Natural law is the precedent for what we today call human rights.

St. Thomas... Continue reading "Thomistic and Machiavellian Political Philosophy" »

Plato's Conception of the Human Ideal

According to Plato, man is formed by a body and a soul; the body is material, and the soul is spiritual. The soul can attain knowledge of ideas, while the body is trapped in appearances. Plato believes that the soul is divided into three parts:

• The Rational: The source of wisdom and reason.
• The Irascible: The source of noble passions, such as courage and honor.
• The Concupiscible: The source of material passions and desires.

Plato uses the allegory of the "winged chariot" to illustrate these three parts. The rational part is the charioteer, guiding the chariot. The irascible part is represented by a noble horse, striving for honor. The concupiscible part is an unruly horse, driven by base desires. To achieve... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: The Soul, Society, and Human Freedom" »

Social Contract Theory: Kant, Hobbes, and Rousseau

The social contract allows individuals to leave the state of nature to enter civil society. It is not a historical fact but a hypothesis that tells us how the state should be administered. The social contract involves the absolute subjugation of the individual to an authority, a concept Kant associated with Hobbes. At the same time, it implies that the individual is a legislator, meaning no law can be adopted without their consent. Therefore, the ruler must make laws as if they emanated from the general will, a point where Kant aligns with Rousseau's thought.

Cosmopolitan Law: Kant's Vision for Global Peace

Public Law is divided into political law, the law of nations, and cosmopolitan law. Cosmopolitan... Continue reading "Kant's Core Philosophical Concepts: State, Law, and Knowledge" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge and Reality

We generally perceive limitations in our understanding. The universality of language or the contents of the mind alone may not suffice.

Critique of Metaphysics

Metaphysics, which studies subjects like God, humanity, and the world of ideas, often remains outside the scope of verifiable knowledge. This is primarily due to a lack of empirical experience. Discarding all dogma, however, can lead to problems in treating empirical and historical knowledge. If so, all knowledge becomes provisional. Mathematics is often considered the only source of completely certain knowledge.

Ethics, Politics, and Religion

Philosophers are interested in problems related to ethics, politics, and religion, attempting to... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Modern Philosophy and the Enlightenment" »

Karl Marx: A Critical Analysis (1818-1883)

Karl Marx's work critically analyzes bourgeois capitalist society, its production model, and the interpretation that society holds regarding reality, human beings, and their history. His primary aim is to move philosophy beyond the mere interpretation of the world, seeking instead to transform this unfair, unequal, and exploitative world for the majority of humanity.

For Marx, the human being is the fundamental principle of society and the subject of history. Therefore, the study of humanity must form the basis of any theoretical conception of the world and history.

Key Features of the Marxist Conception of Humanity

• The human being is a natural being, but possesses no fixed or innately given nature; rather,

Augustine's Inner Search

Augustine is a major figure in Christian philosophy. He believed that God is the source of all reality, truth, and goodness. For Augustine, the search for God begins with self-examination. He believed that God knows us from within, and the soul, as an image of God, is the starting point for this quest. Augustine rejected the Platonic idea of finding truth in the external world, instead advocating for an inner quest to analyze the contents of consciousness.

Faith and Reason in Augustine's Thought

Some Christian philosophers believed that faith lies beyond human capabilities and rejected reason's interference. Augustine, however, saw faith and reason as complementary. He believed that God gave us reason and that religion... Continue reading "Augustine's Philosophy: Faith, Reason, and Divine Illumination" »

A Century of Crisis

René Descartes (1596-1650) developed his philosophy during the 17th century, a period marked by political and religious upheaval. This crisis led to a loss of established foundations, resulting in doubt and a search for new certainties.

Key Characteristics of the 17th Century

• Absolutism: The absolute authority of the monarch, mirroring Descartes' aim to establish absolute knowledge.
• Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church's efforts to maintain Christian unity through the Inquisition, leading to religious wars like the Thirty Years' War (in which Descartes participated).
• Baroque: An artistic movement expressing transience, pessimism, and disorder, exemplified by figures like Molière, Calderón de la Barca, Cervantes, Velázquez,

Positivism vs. Habermas
Auguste Comte:
Born in Montpellier, France, January 19, 1789; died in Paris, September 5, 1857. He is considered the founder of positivism and the discipline of sociology. He early rejected traditional Catholic and monarchical doctrines. In 1848, he founded a Positivist Society.
Jürgen Habermas:
Born in Dusseldorf, Germany in 1929. He studied at the Frankfurt School and became a leading representative of Critical Theory.
Positivism:
Positivism, a philosophical trend since the 19th century, greatly influenced politics and knowledge. It asserts that only scientific knowledge, achieved through the scientific method, is authentic. Positivism is characterized by being useful, true, accurate, and constructive, without accepting... Continue reading "Positivism vs. Habermas: A Comparative Analysis" »

Empirical Standpoint: The Superiority of Sensory Experience

At an epistemological level, Nietzsche adopts an empirical standpoint, establishing the superiority of sensory experience over reason. The senses show us the real world; they are sharp observation instruments that reveal minor differences. In contrast, reason falsifies the testimony of the senses, creating an apparent world and misleading us.

Anthropological Level: A Vital Perspective Against Dualism

At an anthropological level, from a vital perspective, Nietzsche criticizes the dualism of the ailing Western metaphysical tradition. He claims the health of the body as a vital force to impose its reality. Platonic dualism is rejected for sentencing the soul to the prison of the body. Similarly,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics: Embracing Sensory Experience" »