Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Foundations of Ethics: What Should I Do?

Kant has already answered the question, I know, but man is not only a subject who knows, but a being who acts and uses his reason to guide their action. So, we humans not only make theoretical use of reason but also make practical use of it. The question, "What should I do?", is what Kant will analyze in the ethical realm, and above all, he will see that ethical materials share a common trait.

Objections to Material Ethics

These materials have ethical objections:

• Empirical Ethics: We say what we do, and we avoid it. Its content comes from experience and is based on observation. These ethics are full of rules and are defined as hypothetical.
• Heteronomous Ethics: These are justified in terms of interests

Justice: Under a general, stable, and perfect order of a whole, justice exists in the individual soul or the state, where the parts perform their specific function in an appropriate manner and according to their deserved power.

The Good: Plato's idea of the Good is the first of the ideas in dignity and power, comparable to the sun. It is the cause of being and intelligibility of ideas, as well as our knowledge of them. The knowledge of the Good ends the dialectic and the formation of governing ideals.

Pleasure: Plato finds meaning in and reacts against sensual enjoyment of the body. According to Plato, not all pleasures are good or beneficial.

Intelligence: Used in the sense of intellectual activity in general. It is not enough to think and... Continue reading "Understanding Key Concepts in Plato's Philosophy" »

Natural Law and the Social Contract

Thinkers spoke of a positive law, universal and prior to any other. Its defenders, the Stoics Zeno and Chrysippus (c. 3rd century BCE), maintained the theory of a state of nature, the same for everyone. In his De Legibus, Cicero (1st century BCE) speaks of the naturalis societas inter homines and ius in natura positum. Seneca conceived of society as a product of nature. This idea was taken up by later Roman legislators. In the Middle Ages, it lived on in the minds of Christian philosophers. In De Regimine Principum, Aquinas argues that the exercitium of authority is vested in the people and that it is this which confers it. The government, instituted by the community, may be toppled if it becomes tyrannical.... Continue reading "Natural Law, Social Contract, and the Rise of Liberalism" »

The Nature of Human Existence

1. On Human Being as 'Being-Itself'

• A) Human beings can exist like other objects, but they exist only as beings who are themselves. To the extent that they are aware, they can relate with themselves, and this means 'being-itself'.

• B) To be oneself is the way we are, and it is practical in a sense because it is a doing. We continually choose between continuing to exist or ceasing to exist. Any decision to make something is not just a mere implicit decision to continue to exist, but in addition, a specification of how we want to continue our existence.

• C) Only a being-itself is in the world. The world is not merely the sum total of things that compose the universe. Being in the world means to dwell in the world and be

Christian Ethics: Middle Ages

From the Christian perspective, man is a creation of God, and therefore, God becomes the ultimate goal, the supreme good of man. Man has to go to Him all his life to reach contemplation in another life, where he will find happiness. In St. Thomas Aquinas's philosophy, the concept of natural law took a leading role, since it is a law that exists in all humans, and it dictates what to do. This law coincides with the Ten Commandments.

Modern and Contemporary Ethics: Utilitarianism

David Hume denies that moral rules are justified by reason. Instead, he believes they depend on sentiment, as it is sentiment that leads man to talk about good and bad behavior. Someone endorses something if they like it, and vice versa. When... Continue reading "Christian Ethics and Political Power: Origins and Evolution" »

Source Philosophy

Philosophy emerged from the need to replace mythological explanations of reality and nature with rational ones, marking the transition from myth to logos. It arose around the 8th century BC, following the introduction of alphabetic writing. Philosophy is inseparable from concepts; dialectical thought is its essence.

Presocratics

Initiating discussion on the principle (arche) or the principles of all things. The arche is that from which all things are formed, into which they become, and from which they retain their substance even regardless of changes.

• Tales: water
• Anaximander: Apeiron
• Anaximenes: air

Pythagorean School

A philosophical school developed in the city of Croton, south of Magna Graecia. Named after its founder, Pythagoras.... Continue reading "Foundations of Western Philosophy" »

Components of Personality

Personality involves the acceptance of several aspects:

• Our bodies
• Our temperament
• Our sexuality
• The environment around us
• The education we receive
• Our character
• Our goals in life

Socialization Process

Socialization is the training and maturation phase through which a child becomes a competent person within society.

Understanding Ethics and Morality

Ethics is the discipline that aims to reflect on the various moral forms human beings can adopt, as well as assessing the validity of each.

Reason as a Moral Criterion

The criteria that should morally guide our conduct are not pleasure-seeking and utility, but respect for what reason dictates.

Kantian Ethics and Duty

Kant argued that what makes an action morally good is that it is an action... Continue reading "Core Concepts: Personality, Ethics, Rights & Governance" »

Kant's Philosophical Foundations

Immanuel Kant was born in Germany in 1724.

Historical Context

From modernity to the Enlightenment: The pre-revolutionary France was ilustrado. Despotism reigned. In England, however, the king reigns but does not rule.

Revolutions Illustrated

• Glorious Revolution in England (1688)
• Independence of the Colonies (1776)
• The French Revolution (1789)

In Germany, despotism prevailed. Kant faced censorship problems during this time.

Cultural Context

The Enlightenment was a new cultural, political, social, and educational movement that gradually spread across Europe and America.

• The Rise of the bourgeoisie and early steps of liberalism.
• Confidence in reason.
• Confidence in education and knowledge.
• Confidence in progress.

Philosophical

Human Rights: Basic Requirements

Universal

These are basic requirements for anyone who wants to be recognized as such. These requirements state that every person deserves the highest respect and consideration. Therefore, you should recognize all human beings without exception. Every human being must be treated as such, as someone who has the same dignity as others. Universality is the requirement. Please refresh, although echoed in many places, they are not recognized yet.

Preferential

That is, if they conflict with other rights, they have priority and must be protected as a priority. For example, the right to life and health are more important than other secondary rights.

Imprescriptible

That is, they do not expire or prescribe. If they have no... Continue reading "Understanding Human Rights: Principles and Actions" »