Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

19th Century Philosophical Landscape

The nineteenth century in philosophy witnessed the emergence of large systems and a number of philosophical movements of very different designs, many of which rejected systematic and speculative philosophy.

The Rise of Positivism

This century also saw the triumph of Positivism. Auguste Comte was its most prominent representative.

Reaction Against Positivism

During the last decades of the nineteenth century, a strong reaction against Positivism emerged. The causes were numerous: the crisis of the positive sciences and the growing awareness that individual and social problems were not solvable solely through scientific research.

Currents involved in this reaction included older philosophies (e.g., Kantianism and... Continue reading "Key Philosophical Currents of the 19th Century" »

Freedom and Perfectibility in Rousseau's Philosophy

Freedom

In addition to basic feelings, humans possess freedom in nature. In his Discourse on Inequality, Rousseau calls animals "ingenious machines," meaning that their behavior is absolutely predetermined by nature or by instinct. Animals are not moral agents because they lack the basic requirements: reason and freedom. Rather, we should regard them as amoral beings, because they cannot choose their behavior and are therefore not responsible for it.

But unlike animals, humans are free. The peculiarity of human behavior is that it can be the result of a choice, and freedom is just that. We say that humans are moral agents.

Because humans are free to choose their actions, they are responsible for... Continue reading "Human Freedom and Perfectibility: Rousseau's Philosophy" »

Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critical Analysis

Nietzsche, a philosopher of life, strength, and absolute discretion, critically examines Western culture, adopting an intellectual approach to life. He begins by critiquing philosophy and its synthesis of reason and life, united in a world of constant evolution.

Critique of Socrates and Plato

Socrates starts with a model of knowledge based on surplus, an error accentuated by Plato, who invents a world of Ideas. Language and reason become tools in the service of life. From this cult of grammar emerges metaphysics and science, which Nietzsche views as empty values.

Moral and Intellectual Critique

Nietzsche undertakes a critique of the unnatural moral and intellectual stances of Socrates and Plato, who understand... Continue reading "Understanding Nietzsche: Key Concepts and Critique of Culture" »

Phaedo: The Immortality of the Soul

The Meeting of Phaedo and Echecrates

Plato's Phaedo, a seminal work from his mature period, delves into his most important theories and influences. This dialogue can be divided into six thematic parts. It begins with the meeting of Echecrates and Phaedo. Phaedo, who was present during Socrates' last days and death, recounts these events and describes Socrates' demeanor.

Those Present at Socrates' Last Day

Among those present were Apollodorus, Hermogenes, Epigenes, Aeschines, Antisthenes, Ctesippus of Paeania, Menexenus, Critobulus, his father, and others. As was customary, they arrived very early to await Socrates' release from his cell, hoping to engage in dialogue with him. However, they unexpectedly learned... Continue reading "Phaedo: Plato's Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul" »

Understanding Agency and Intelligent Agents

An agent is a system that acts to produce certain effects on its environment. Agency refers to the functional and structural qualities of the agents themselves. Intelligent agents are adaptable to changing environments, learn from experience, and choose the right actions based on a finite process of displaying information. They exhibit goal-directed behavior to achieve their objectives.

Essential Features of Intelligent Agents

Intelligent agents possess several key features:

• Attitudes such as beliefs and intentions
• Ability to gain knowledge
• Problem-solving capabilities
• Awareness of the limits of their own knowledge and abilities
• Potential for originality
• Ability to generalize
• Ability to perceive and understand

Rationality

Hume: The Negation of Reality

Hume believed that the negation of reality does not have important empirical consequences for ethics. He argued that moral duty is not an empirical fact, and attempted to demonstrate its inconsistency. One of the main tenets of ethical empiricism is the inability to transition from 'being' to 'ought,' a philosophical position known as Hume's Law. Hume's exclusion of values contradicts the evidence because duty is not an empirical fact (it can be something, but one does not have to pay because of it).

Kantian Apriorism

Bridging rationalism and empiricism, Kant proposed that knowledge is a synthesis of intuitions and sensitivity with understanding and concepts. Without feeling, there is no serious purpose. Thought without... Continue reading "Hume, Kant, Marx: Key Philosophical Concepts Explained" »

Rational and Political Animal (Aristotle)

Aristotle's concepts of humanity as a rational and political animal are foundational, reappearing constantly throughout philosophy. This understanding arises within a philosophical context characterized by:

• A fixist, essentialist, and hierarchical worldview. In this view, the human being is considered different from and superior to other beings due to possessing rationality.
• A contemplative and theoretical conception of both humanity and nature.
• This philosophical context also served to justify the existing social order, including practices like slave society and the subordination of women.

Judeo-Christian View of Humanity

The Judeo-Christian conception offers a distinct perspective on human nature, with... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on Human Nature" »

Plato's Theory of Anamnesis: Recollection

The theory of Anamnesis addresses a fundamental difficulty in the pursuit of knowledge: how can one search for something that is either already known (which would be useless) or completely unknown (in which case, how would one know what to look for or how to recognize it)?

Plato's answer is that what we seek to know is, in fact, already known to us; the act of searching is merely an act of recollection. This theory presupposes that the soul and body are two persistently distinct natures.

Plato illustrates this belief through the Myth of the Chariot. He states that the soul, before its fall, contemplated the World of Ideas. The fallen soul, having descended from that world, reached its current state, incarnated... Continue reading "Plato's Theories of Knowledge: Anamnesis and the Cave" »

Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Foundations of Knowledge

Immanuel Kant's philosophical inquiry begins with a fundamental question: Is metaphysics possible as a science? (Metaphysics is defined here as that which is beyond physics). Kant meticulously examines what truly constitutes scientific knowledge, analyzing judgments classified into two primary types: analytic and synthetic. Synthetic judgments are further subdivided into synthetic a priori and synthetic a posteriori.

Conditions for Scientific Knowledge

To determine what qualifies as scientific knowledge, Kant subjects each type of judgment to a rigorous screening based on three essential conditions:

• Universality: Applicable everywhere and always.
• Necessity: Must be true; cannot be otherwise.

Freedom

• According to the ancients, freedom meant taking part in the discussions of the city, joining the community, accepting their laws, and demanding their rights.
• According to modern society, freedom is an individual matter, at least in principle.

Freedom: refers to non-dependence and non-interference from others. This is a negative freedom.

Freedom: refers to the commitment and loyalty to oneself. It is internal and positive.

Plurality of Liberties

• Physical: the possibility of movement.
• Privacy: the ability to exercise our political rights of participation in the political life of our communities.
• Civil: ability to exercise our civil rights.
• Thinking: ability to think what we want and to express it.
• Religious: possibility to select and exercise a