Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Introduction to the Scientific Revolution

A. The Paradigm Shift

The origin of modern science is rooted in the Renaissance Scientific Revolution. This revolution began prominently in astronomy, where Copernicus initiated the transition from the old view to the modern one.

Contrasting Cosmological Views

The shift involved moving away from the Aristotelian model:

• Aristotelian View: Held that the cosmos was a finite, closed unit consisting of two worlds: the sublunary and supralunar. These worlds were subject to different laws and composed of different elements and compounds.
• Modern View: Maintains that the cosmos is an open, perhaps infinite, set, consisting of the same basic components, governed by the same laws, and the Earth is only one element of

Textual Analysis Introduction

This analysis examines a philosophical text, identifying three distinct arguments or perspectives. We will delve into the core ideas, providing detailed commentary and highlighting significant aspects. The following sections present a comprehensive content analysis.

Descartes' Method of Doubt

In the first section, Descartes introduces the method of doubt, questioning everything that is not clearly and distinctly perceived. This process continues until a certain and secure foundation is reached: the very existence of the self. He pushes this approach to its limit with the hypothesis of the evil genius, who constantly deceives the senses, presenting an unreal reality.

The Certainty of "Cogito, Ergo Sum"

Descartes argues... Continue reading "Descartes' Doubt and Russell's Challenge to the Self" »

Galileo's Scientific Method

Methodological Principles

• Resolution (Analysis): Sensitive data analysis to discover essential elements.
• Composition (Synthesis): Preparation of a mathematical model linking data with theorems or laws, and deduction of consequences.
• Experimental Resolution: Modern experimentation and production of predicted effects through specific setups, asking precise questions to nature.

René Descartes: Philosophy & Method

Mechanistic Worldview

Interpretation whereby all qualities of the physical world are the result of extension and motion. These should be treated mathematically.

Rules of Method

1. Evidence: Never admit anything as true unless it is so clear and distinct that it cannot be doubted.
2. Analysis: Divide complex ideas into

The Proof of God's Existence

Saint Augustine of Hippo (4th-5th centuries) begins with the existence of absolutely certain truths present in the human mind to prove the existence of God. These truths, which he calls "instances of the arbitration of reason," do not come from sensory experience. They are more perfect than man himself, and they are timeless and universal.

Saint Augustine concludes that the origin of such truths is God. If these instances of arbitration do not come from the human mind, then they must originate in a being superior to the mind, a being that is also eternal and perfect. This being is God.

Thus, Augustine demonstrates God's existence through thought itself. This is similar to the proof offered by Saint Anselm of Canterbury... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Philosophy, Faith, and Existence" »

Descartes' Philosophy: Substance and Mechanism

The attribute of infinity is that which cannot exhibit any change, so modes do not apply to this attribute.

Regarding matter, its attribute is extension. Modes are supported. Movement is primarily the mode of extended substance. The problem is that extension does not inherently involve movement, but movement is observed in extended substance. This leads to the conclusion that movement is not inherent to matter itself.

To explain this, something external to matter is needed, and Descartes introduces God. He states that when God creates the world, He introduces the necessary movement. Bodies then transmit movement to others through contact. This explains the mechanics of the world.

This is the origin... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on Substance and Knowledge" »

Hume's Challenge to Causality

If we accept only what experience offers, we find that causality is not an inherent property we observe directly. Experience presents us only with a succession of phenomena.

We cannot observe either the power in A to produce B, or the direct link between A and B where A is the cause of B. The forces through which bodies supposedly operate are entirely unknown to us. The connection between cause and effect, therefore, appears arbitrary.

The only things we consistently find are specific patterns in the succession of phenomena:

• Spatiotemporal Contiguity: Cause and effect are close in space and time.
• Priority in Time: The cause always precedes the effect.
• Constant Conjunction: The same causes are always followed by the same

Kant's Enduring Moral Philosophy

Kant's moral philosophy is praised for its advocacy of wider recognition of human dignity and its confidence in human progress. Indeed, the categorical imperative remains a profound proposal because it places humanity as the supreme end and goal.

Human rights are perfectly attuned to the categorical imperative, promoting respect and complying with the mandatory condition of being universally desirable as a standard of behavior. Currently, some thinkers doubt the validity and universality of human rights, despite the occurrence of facts incompatible with these rights and the categorical imperative.

Reason, Peace, and Global Governance

Kant and the Enlightenment propose that reason should rule the world. In his brief... Continue reading "Kantian Ethics: Principles, Human Rights, and Global Peace" »

Understanding Core Concepts in Political Philosophy

Why Democracy is Preferable

Democracy is often considered preferable over other forms of government because it maximizes individual freedom within the political community. It serves as the primary remedy against the abuse of power, dictating that citizens themselves must choose those who best represent their interests.

Justice: Moral, Social, and Legal Dimensions

Justice can be examined from three distinct perspectives:

• Moral Aspect: As personal ethics, guiding individual conduct.
• Social Aspect: Defining relationships among members of society.
• Legal and Political Aspects: As a moral obligation within the framework of law and governance.

Justice, intrinsically linked with the concept of order, expresses... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Political Philosophy: Democracy, Justice, Social Contract" »

Transcendental Idealism forms a cornerstone of Immanuel Kant's philosophy, particularly as articulated in his seminal work, the Critique of Pure Reason.

The Quest for Scientific Knowledge

Kant meticulously studied mathematics and Newtonian science. For Kant, Isaac Newton was the discoverer of fundamental laws, yet Kant sought to understand the deeper philosophical conditions that make genuine, a priori scientific knowledge possible. He questioned: What conditions allow for truly informed, real science? Can metaphysics or philosophy achieve the status of scientific knowledge?

Kant's Engagement with Newton

While respecting Newton's achievements, Kant believed that Newtonian science, as it stood, did not perfectly combine secure, rational constructs... Continue reading "Kant's Transcendental Idealism: Shaping Scientific Knowledge" »

Analysis: Overcoming Skepticism

Augustine argues that human error doesn't negate truth, refuting skeptics through an existential analysis of error.

Knowing the Truth

Internalization

Truth is found within the soul, not in the sensible world, reflecting Plato's influence.

Epistemological Significance

Knowledge requires a stable object, leading the soul to seek truth beyond changeable human nature, ultimately in God.

Nature of Truth

Truth is a normative principle, with ideas as immutable essences in divine intelligence.

Properties of Ideas:

• Immutability: Necessary and eternal.
• Eternity: Governs mobility.
• Classes: Logical, mathematical, ethical.
• Location: God (Logos) as the model of all essences.
• Access: Through intellectual intuition illuminated by the divine