Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Kant's Critique of Traditional Metaphysics

Immanuel Kant critically examines the possibility or impossibility of metaphysics. He argues that the fundamental error of traditional metaphysics lies in attributing reality and existence to mere ideas. For Kant, metaphysics, understood as a set of judgments about reality beyond empirical experience, cannot be considered a science. Its inquiries extend beyond sensory perception, seeking to understand things-in-themselves (noumena) rather than just phenomena.

Traditional metaphysics often discusses the Soul, World, and God – concepts sometimes referred to as the three Cartesian substances. Kant asserts that we can never have direct intuition of any of these. Human reason, in its inherent tendency,... Continue reading "Kant's Critique of Metaphysics and Theory of Knowledge" »

Hume's Philosophy of Knowledge

This text summarizes and simplifies the themes of Book 1 of David Hume's Treatise of Human Nature, a work largely misunderstood in his time. The original investigation is divided into 12 sections.

In his profound investigation of human knowledge, Hume presents his interpretation of how we acquire and process information. This perceptual empiricism identifies the fundamental components of knowledge, distinguishing between two primary types:

• Impressions: Vivid and forceful perceptions, such as sensations, passions, and emotions.
• Ideas: Faint images of impressions in thinking and reasoning. Ideas are less intense copies of original impressions.

Types of Impressions

Hume further categorizes impressions into two kinds:

• Impressions

Hume's Empiricist Theory of Knowledge

Hume's Theory of Knowledge, unlike others, is skeptical. This means it doubts the possibility of developing concepts of universal value based on facts that are constantly changing and transforming (e.g., the concept of 'I' or personal identity, the physical world). Hume considered the senses the only possible source for knowledge. Before him, many other philosophers linked knowledge to experience—to data obtained through the senses. This was the case, for example, with Aristotle who, against his teacher Plato, argued for sensitive experience as the origin of ideas. For Aristotle, we can only speak of the concept 'man' after knowing individual men (like Raymond or Augustine). In this sense, his approach... Continue reading "David Hume's Empiricism: Knowledge from Senses and Skepticism" »

Cartesian Methodical Doubt

The Nature of Methodical Doubt

Methodical doubt is an essential method of Cartesian philosophy, aiming at the radical foundation of knowledge by rejecting all beliefs that may arise in doubt. The practice of methodical doubt calls into question not only the value of the senses but also that of deductive reason. The physical world, including the external body, does not resist the actual methodical doubt.

Only the Cogito resists the ravages of methodical doubt. This method was used by Descartes for the discovery of the Cogito, a concept that expresses, on the one hand, the first, whole, and absolutely true truth ("I think, therefore I am"), and secondly, the fact that this truth specifically concerns the self-conscious... Continue reading "Descartes' Methodical Doubt and Philosophical Principles" »

Nietzsche's Core Ideas

The Death of God

The "death of God" thesis states that belief in God, and by extension, belief in any absolute entities, is dead. Belief in God served as a comfort against the misery and suffering in this world. When Nietzsche declared that "God is dead," he meant to indicate that humanity lives disoriented, no longer guided by the ultimate horizon in which it has always lived. With this "death," humanity cannot live without the Absolute in the "innocence of becoming." It is the condition for the appearance of the Übermensch (superman).

Culture that believes in an absolute reality with objective values like Truth and Good is, for Nietzsche, nihilistic. He saw the entire Christian and Western culture as nihilistic, directing... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Death of God and Übermensch" »

René Descartes embarked on a profound philosophical journey, questioning everything he believed to be true. His methodical doubt extended not only to the information provided by his senses and the existence of his own body, but also to the reality of the external world. He even pushed his skepticism to the point of doubting his own existence.

The Foundational Truth: "I Think, Therefore I Am"

However, at this extreme point of doubt, a primary truth emerged, forming the very basis of his philosophy: If I think, therefore I am (Cogito, ergo sum). Descartes employed methodical doubt as a tool to arrive at this first certainty: the existence of the thinking subject. By systematically doubting the senses, the external world, and even his own reasoning,... Continue reading "Descartes' Methodical Doubt: Path to Absolute Truth" »

Classifying nouns according to their meaning is complex, as it involves establishing an order for the realities or beings they designate. However, understanding the traditional classification is essential, as it is the most common:

Common Nouns vs. Proper Nouns

Common nouns designate all members of the same class (e.g., pine, balcony). Proper nouns identify or individualize a being distinct from others of the same class. Proper nouns for people are called anthroponyms (e.g., Gabriela, Eduardo), while those for places are called toponyms (e.g., Madrid, Júcar).

Proper nouns, used to designate individual beings, often accept the plural form. They typically reject the article, except in specific cases:

1. When the proper noun is specified:

• You are advised

Early Human Development: From Symbiosis to Self

The Symbiotic Phase and Individuation

Initially, the baby's body blends with the environment. At this symbiotic point, the mother does not perceive the baby as a being distinct from herself; she calms and protects it. The process of individuation involves differentiating one's image from others and other things in the world. In many respects, similar to Piaget's theories, it is through the body that the relationship between internal and external is formed.

The Mirror Phase and Symbolic Capacity

As the baby matures, it recognizes exteroceptive images through a process called the mirror phase, which involves the perception of images. Initially, the child does not grasp the relationship between image... Continue reading "Psychological Insights: From Early Development to Adult Love" »

Understanding Your Vocation

Your destination is an imperious tendency toward a particular way of life for the realization of your potential. Vocation is a force that operates both inside the individual, pushing them to act in pursuit of their life project, and outside, where the needs of society provide a real and concrete framework for its expression.

It is the inner force that drives and energizes a person to be held in society. This force is a double called Vocation: EXTERIOR (requirement of the company) and INTERNAL (internal needs).

Justice as the State's Purpose: Plato

Some thinkers believe the State's main function is to ensure justice, a view held by Plato. However, discrepancies arise when defining justice.

Justice: A Virtue of the Soul

Plato believed humans are composed of body and soul. The soul has three parts:

• Rational (knowledge)
• Volitional (ambition and will)
• Appetitive (desires)

Each part has a specific virtue:

• Rational: Wisdom/Prudence
• Volitional: Strength/Courage
• Appetitive: Temperance

According to Plato, justice exists when each part of the soul fulfills its respective virtue.

Justice and Social Order in Plato's Republic

Plato's Republic describes a just state analogous to the human soul, with three classes:

• Philosopher-Rulers (wisdom)
• Guardians/Warriors (courage)
• Producers