Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Philosophical Journey

Plato, a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, came from an aristocratic family. The political climate, particularly the condemnation of Socrates to death by the Athenian democracy, profoundly influenced his philosophy. Plato argued against the idea of a philosopher-king exercising arbitrary justice, instead believing that the goal of any political system should be the happiness of its citizens. He explored metaphysics, ethics, anthropology, and epistemology, aiming to create a just political system. He founded the Academy of Athens, open to both men and women, and attempted to implement his political ideas in Syracuse.

Plato's concept of the universality of ideas and knowledge stemmed from the influence... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Metaphysics, Ethics, and Politics" »

Metaphysics: The Study of Reality and Being

Ludwig Wittgenstein (20th Century) made a provision, but the echoes were between the formal linguistic structure he expressed. "To know if a picture is true reality we must compare it with reality" (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus).

Regarding metaphysics, knowledge has 3 fields:

1. Ontology: A study of being or reality in its maximum generality. It utilizes categories, which are the conditions of intelligibility of being or reality.
2. Gnoseology: Also called epistemology, is the theory of knowledge.
3. Rational Theology: A study about God.

Aristotle presented an ontotheological project of metaphysics. The main tools for the study of metaphysics are the categories. There are 2 systems:

• Aristotle: Categories are the

Creationism posits that the world and living beings were created by God, contrasting with evolutionary theories. This concept forms the basis of many religious beliefs and is central to Christian doctrines. Our culture often grounds itself in the Bible, a sacred text for both Jews and Christians.

Fixism: The Unchanging Species

Fixism, a scientific theory, asserts that plant and animal species do not evolve but remain constant over time. This fixist view has a long history in European thought, rooted in the ideas of Aristotle and aligned with the creationist interpretation derived from a literal reading of the Bible. This gave rise to fixism.

To explain the existence of fossils representing extinct species and the emergence of new ones, creationism... Continue reading "Understanding Creationism, Fixism, and Lamarckism" »

"All men by nature desire to know." With these words begins the first book of Aristotle's Metaphysics. That desire to know culminates in the acquisition of wisdom, which is, for Aristotle, knowledge of the causes and principles of being. And that knowledge is the object of metaphysics, the science of first causes and principles of being, the knowledge of self "as being," knowledge of the ultimate cause of nature and reality.

Aristotle's Reaction to Plato's Theory of Ideas

Aristotelian metaphysics is developed largely in reaction to the theory of Ideas of Plato. Aristotle does not appear to have any opposition to or criticism of the theory of Ideas while in the Academy. It shows, on the contrary, that the first criticisms of the theory of Ideas... Continue reading "Aristotelian Metaphysics: A Critique of Plato's Theory of Ideas" »

Materialist Monism: It explains the human psyche as a consequence of the brain. One character supports material reality. Dualism: In addition to the matter of the body, there is a bypass and intangible principle called the soul, which is essential to explain human action. Plato: Dualist - The human being comprises a body and soul; by chance or accident, the soul is immortal and immaterial, while the body is material and mortal. Aristotle's Hylomorphism: Body and soul are completely separable, but in imagination, they can be separated, while in reality, they always go together. Popper's Interactionism: There are mental acts and their essential individuality; the mind is a product of emergent evolutionary brain processes. It is true that not... Continue reading "Understanding Materialist Monism and Dualism in Philosophy" »

Relativism

Relativism: Each has its own truth, and nothing is better than that of others. There are no absolute truths, but all depend on the person or culture in which they remain.

Skepticism

Skepticism: It is not possible to argue knowledge; no truths can be established. Gorgias, a Sophist of the 5th century BC, showed it well:

1. Nothing exists.
2. If anything existed, it could not be known to man.
3. If anything existed, it could not be expressed with language.

Sophists

Sophists: Teachers of "political virtue" of Athens in the 5th century BC. Language did not express reality but was an instrument of manipulation, a weapon of persuasion. The Athenian youths, eager to succeed in politics, paid to be taught this. They believed in relativism, skepticism, and... Continue reading "Truth and Knowledge: Relativism, Skepticism, and Dogmatism" »

English Modal Verbs: Ability, Possibility, and More

Ability:

• Can (present)
• Could (past, specific time)
• Was/Were able to (past, general moments)

Possibility/Deductions:

• Must (99% sure)
• Cannot (99% sure)
• May, Might, Could (approximately 50%)

Obligation:

• Must (orders from someone)
• Have to (imposed by law)

Prohibitions and Necessity:

• Mustn't (prohibited)
• Don't have to / Don't need to (not necessary)
• Needn't (not necessary, similar meaning)

Advice:

• Should (generally applicable)
• Ought to (less commonly used)
• Had better (less formal)

Permission:

• May, Can, Could, Be allowed to (ranging from formal to less formal)

Modal Perfect:

• Could have (suggestions)
• Must have (past logical deductions)
• Cannot have (past impossible facts)
• Should have (opinion on past facts)
• Should not have

Scholasticism

Scholasticism was a philosophical and theological movement conducted in schools and universities of medieval Europe from the mid-11th century until the mid-15th century. Its ideal was to integrate into an ordered system both the philosophical knowledge of Greece and Rome and the knowledge of Christian religion. Its main principles are:

1. Fundamental harmony between reason and revelation. Any apparent opposition between revelation and reason could be traced to either a misuse of reason or a misinterpretation of the words of revelation. In conflicts between religious faith and philosophical reasoning, faith was always the ultimate arbiter. During the scholastic period, philosophy served theology.
2. The problem of universals: Are universals

Democritus and Atomic Theory

Democritus proposed that the universe is composed of indivisible and indestructible elements called atoms. This contrasts with modern atomic theory, where atoms are divisible and behave according to quantum mechanics. Atoms are in constant motion, and their interactions have implications for life and death, healing and destruction.

Protagoras and Relativism

Pythagoras' Influence

Protagoras, influenced by Pythagoras, stated, "Man is the measure of all things, of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not." This suggests that truth is relative and varies based on individual perspectives. This period is known as the anthropological period, focusing on human nature and thought.

Views on Democracy and Law

• Charicles: