Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Pre-Conventional Morality

The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.^[7][8][9]

Stage One: Obedience and Punishment Driven

In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences... Continue reading "Pre-Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning" »

Karl Popper's Falsificationism

The principal topic of this text from The Logic of Scientific Discovery is the vision that Popper has on science, according to his falsificationism method. First, the author argues that science is not certain knowledge and that it is not possible to reach the truth. Instead, we can only elaborate simple conjectures. He affirms that these scientific conjectures must be subjected to rigorous and systematic tests, not to verify them but to demonstrate that the conjectures are false. To conclude, Popper says that the purpose of science is not to reach absolute truth but to provide increasingly deep answers to new problems and to submit them to progressively more complex refutations.

The Doctrine of the Point of View

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Descartes' Analysis of Ideas

In this text, Descartes presents his analysis of ideas. First, Descartes states that our ideas, considered as immanent content (internal content) of our mind, cannot be considered false. Then, after recognizing that we can only be wrong when we make judgments, he says that it is a very common mistake to assume that our ideas refer to external entities; otherwise, we would never be wrong. Finally, Descartes concludes by explaining his distinction between the three types of ideas: innate, fictitious, and adventitious.

Locke's Critique of Cartesian Innatism

In this text, John Locke presents his critique of Cartesian innatism. First, Locke states that the goal of this text is to refute the widespread belief in the existence... Continue reading "Philosophical Concepts: Ideas, Experience, Ethics, Reason" »

Elenchus (Socratic Method):

a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions.

Philosophy:

An attitude of critical thoughtfulness concerning highly fundamental and general beliefs

Deductive Argument:

Attempts to show that a conclusion necessarily follows the premises

Validity vs. Soundness:

Validity is a deductive argument which the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true, whereas soundness combines both validity and true premises

Inductive Argument:

Attempts to provide reasons for the truth of the conclusion, the conclusion states more than what is contained in the premises, universal conclusion.

Glaucon’s

Cultural Relativism: A Critique

One can only be judged by the standards and morals of their culture because morality is determined by each culture. You can't judge any culture outside of your own because you don’t understand why they believe what they believe. However, if enough people are part of that culture and believe that what they are doing is good, then there must be some truth in that.

If cultural relativism was universally supported and believed to be true, then there shouldn’t be any international governing bodies such as the United Nations or the European Parliament. This is because, under cultural relativism, you should be accepting that each culture has its own opinion on what is good and bad, and from an outside perspective,... Continue reading "Cultural Relativism vs. Universal Morality: Exploring Ethical Frameworks" »

It is claimed that money is the only thing that motivates entrepreneurs

I can clearly say that entrepreneurs have different types of motivations. Some of them are related to the desire to earn money and others with the illusion of turning your dream into reality.

At present, the development of new companies has become very fashionable. With this, many entrepreneurs dream of becoming the next millionaire genius like Mark Zuckerberg. They also dream of traveling by private jet, partying in Las Vegas and having a Ferrari.

Although money is a great motivator and is very necessary to boost entrepreneurs, recent research concludes that people who only seek to earn money have a personality more prone to individualism, lack of willingness to work in teams... Continue reading "Motivations of Entrepreneurs: Beyond Money" »

Analyze: To study something in detail 

Immanuel Kant: "Doing What You Ought"

Highest Principle: Justice

Kant's highest principle is justice, emphasizing respect for individual rights. Moral rules can be broken, even if it makes people happy.

The Importance of Motive

Only the motive matters. The only morally good motive is the motive of duty, doing the right thing because it is right.

Acting Freely

When we satisfy our appetites, we are not acting freely because we are driven by the laws of our biology. We act freely in accordance with moral law, which is reason.

The Categorical Imperative

The moral law tells us what our duty is through the categorical imperative, an unconditional moral obligation that is binding in all circumstances and is not dependent on a person's inclination or purpose.... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Moral Philosophy: Duty and Ethics" »

Key Figures in Rationalist Philosophy

1. Who are the Three Great Rationalists?

1. Descartes, Plato, and Spinoza
2. Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza
3. Descartes, Leibniz, and Locke

Answer: B. Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza. Their philosophy emphasizes the importance of innate reasoning abilities in acquiring knowledge.

2. What is Saint Augustine's "Confessions" About?

1. Life
2. Religion
3. Nature of Time

Answer: C. Nature of time. He famously stated: "If no one asks me what time is, I know; if they ask and I try to explain, I do not know."

3. From Which Community was Spinoza Expelled?

1. Christian community
2. Jewish community
3. Muslim community

Answer: B. Jewish community. He was expelled due to his philosophical views, which were considered heretical.

4. How did St. Augustine Fuse