Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hume's Science of Man: Foundation and Purpose

David Hume defends the dependence of all sciences on the science of man, or the science of human nature. It is man who comprehends these sciences, which are his own creation, and it is man who must be studied. This Science of Man aims to guide society toward a world free of prejudice and religious bigotry, moving away from ancient and superstitious beliefs.

Critique of Superstition and Metaphysics

Hume, a profound rationalist, believes that rationalist superstition and metaphysics form the ideological basis of societal shortcomings. Religious intolerance, hypocrisy, and malice impede the progress, culture, and welfare of society. The Science of Man, Hume argues, intends to liberate humanity and dismantle... Continue reading "David Hume's Philosophy: Empiricism, Reason, and Human Nature" »

Augustine on Skepticism and Truth

Academic — in his Counter (or against the Academics) — Augustine criticizes scholars such as Carneades, Arcesilaus and the successors of Plato's Academy who held the position of philosophical skepticism. According to Augustine, that form of skepticism had stripped Platonism of its ascetic and religious character and upheld the claim that it is not really possible to know.

License, an Academic contemporary of Augustine, stated that to achieve happiness it is enough to seek the truth; there was no need to know it. Given this interpretation of Platonism, Augustine — responding to Academic skepticism — uses an argument similar to the one Plato employed against the Sophists: how can those who deny the possibility

The Political Philosophy of Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli, the foremost political thinker of the Renaissance, inaugurated modern political science by dealing with the practical affairs of the state. He was a hands-on politician, more interested in intervening in the governance of his state than in abstract theorizing. However, he knew that any goal-oriented action must be guided by theoretical principles.

These principles are outlined in his two most famous works, The Prince and Discourses on Livy, which serve as a guide for rulers. This approach posits that the ultimate goal of politics is to preserve the unity and identity of the community. The general rule is that every city tends toward the degeneration and corruption of its institutions... Continue reading "Machiavelli: Politics, Power, and Morality" »

Tema IV: El hombre, ser libre

Significados históricos de la libertad

Significados históricos de la libertad

The idea of freedom has acquired different meanings, even contradictory ones, throughout history. These are some of the meanings that freedom has had:

• a) Physical freedom: associated with economic or property freedom.
• b) Freedom as wisdom: If you do not know what to do, you probably are not free. One of the great dangers of freedom is ignorance. But do not exaggerate it: knowing does not make you totally free.
• c) Freedom as prior or superior to wisdom (Aristotle): deliberation — a rationalistic assessment. Judgment of the intelligence, judgment of the will. If they agree, the decision is immediate. In the case of a collision between these

Principles of Logic

Principle of Identity

An object is the same as itself: A is A → A = A.

Principle of Contradiction

Nothing can both be and not be in the same sense at the same time. Contradictory statements cannot both be true: Nothing can be A and not A → ¬(A ∧ ¬A).

Principle of Excluded Middle

Everything must either be or not be. Every statement must be either true or false: Everything is A or not A → A ∨ ¬A.

Logical Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Invalid Arguments

Consider the statement: "This statement is false." This proposition creates a paradox. If we assume it's true, then its content declares it false. Conversely, if we assume it's false, then its content implies it's true. This self-contradictory statement challenges basic logical... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Logic: Principles and Applications" »

Key Ethical Concepts and Definitions

Ethics: A tool that helps in making decisions and rules of behavior based on what is morally right.

Moral Dilemmas: Conflicts where there are no clear or exact solutions; you have to make the best decision that will still affect others.

Norms: Standards of proper behavior.

Morality: Right and wrong behavior.

Human Act vs. Act of Man: An action that is voluntary; an act of man involves thought and a taken decision.

Values and Anti-values:

• Ethical Values: The capacity for determining importance in situations.
• Moral Values: Guidelines that assist in deciding between right and wrong.
• Anti-values: A predictable outcome.

Ethics in the Digital Age

Sharenting: When tutors share excessive information and/or photos of their... Continue reading "Ethics, Philosophy, and Human Behavior Fundamentals" »

Imperialist Reason: Bourdieu & Wacquant's Critique

Note on notation: ≠ means 'is/are not'; = means 'is/are' or 'means'.

Understanding Cultural Imperialism

• Cultural imperialism rests on the power to universalize particularisms linked to a historical tradition. Indeed, nothing is more universal than the pretension to the universal, or more accurately, to the universalization of a particular vision of the world.
• The central focus of this text is **universalization** across philosophical, sociological, historical, and political dimensions.
• This universalization, reinforced by media repetition and broadcast, progressively transforms specific facts into universal common sense.
• Cultural imperialism, whether American or otherwise, imposes itself most

Tema IV. El hombre, ser libre

La indeterminación de la libertad

El ser humano posee una tendencia hacia lo infinito, una inclinación ilimitada que trasciende las contradicciones. Este es el factor más decisivo: podemos romper nuestra cadena de necesidades básicas. La vida humana debe calificarse como una satisfacción parcial, por lo que nuestra libertad está intrínsecamente asociada a la responsabilidad.

Los límites: determinación a la felicidad

A pesar de nuestra tendencia a lo eterno, enfrentamos limitaciones. El ser humano aspira a la felicidad, pero nuestras decisiones están condicionadas por la ignorancia; no podemos desear ni realizar aquello que desconocemos, y existen formas de ignorancia que nos deshumanizan.

La autodeterminación

Core Bioethical Principles

Moral Progress and Scientific Advancement

There is no possible scientific progress without moral progress too.

The Unity of the Human Person

Each human being is a biological, spiritual, and moral unity. What truly differentiates persons from other living beings is our capacity to behave morally.

Primacy of Human Life

The Belmont Report outlines general bioethical principles. A key principle is the primacy of present and real human life above any other interest or value. This also implies the respect for human dignity.

Understanding Human Dignity

The origin and foundation of the duty of absolute respect for human life are to be found in the dignity proper to the person, and not simply in the natural inclination to preserve... Continue reading "Bioethical Foundations: Human Life, Dignity, and Legal Status" »

Anthropological Ideas of the Holy Fathers (Platonism) - Until the 13th Century

These ideas persisted until the 13th century due to:

• The idea that the soul is in the body due to a fall (original sin)
• The idea that the soul, in the body, is subjected to superior and inferior tendencies (battle between the flesh and the spirit)
• Immortality of the soul

Saint Thomas Aquinas (Aristotelian Standpoint)

• The soul is the form of the body.
• The soul does not pre-exist the body; it is created by God at the same time it in-forms the body.
• No transmigration.
• Immortal soul.

Descartes (Plato's Standpoint - Efficient Causality)

Descartes' views aligned with Plato's because:

• He rejects the concept of substantial forms.
• He considers the soul to be a thinking and self-sufficient