Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

OECD Corporate Governance Principles

Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports.

• Rights and Equitable Treatment of Shareholders

  Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

• Interests of Other Stakeholders

  Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market-driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, including employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities,

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment fostered a critical attitude among the intelligentsia and promoted the advancement of literacy among the population. This era saw significant societal shifts, including educational reforms and a surge in published works.

Educational and Literary Advancements

• Prussia introduced the world's first primary education system for boys and girls.
• In England, book publications dramatically increased from 21,000 in 1710 to 65,000 in 1790. Religious content was increasingly replaced by works of science, arts, philosophy, and literature.

Key Enlightenment Philosophers

While these achievements were significant, some Enlightenment thinkers believed they were insufficient, leading to radical critiques of the... Continue reading "Enlightenment Thinkers & Reformation's Impact on Society" »

Identifying Common Logical Fallacies

Fundamentals of Ethics

Ethics: Meaning and Scope

Ethics refers to a set of moral principles and values that guide the behavior of individuals and professionals. In engineering, ethics ensures honesty, responsibility, safety, and accountability in all technical and professional activities.

Personal Versus Professional Ethics

• Personal Ethics: Moral values shaped by culture, family, and belief systems. They include honesty, kindness, and integrity.
• Professional Ethics: Rules and standards defined by the profession, ensuring public safety, transparency, and quality.

Example: A person may be honest personally, but professionally they must also maintain confidentiality and follow safety standards.

Civic Virtue

Civic virtue means acting responsibly as a citizen—respecting... Continue reading "Core Principles of Professional Ethics and Gender Equity" »

Job Interview Vocabulary

Interview: A conversation between a job applicant and an employer to assess the applicant's qualifications and decide on hiring.

Skills: Abilities or experience that enhance a person's capacity to complete a given task.

Salary Expectations: Also known as compensation expectations, this is the amount of money an employee anticipates earning for performing a specific job.

Long-Term Goals: Objectives you aim to accomplish in the future, requiring time and planning.

Strengths: Tasks or actions you perform well, including skills, proficiencies, and talents.

Weaknesses: A lack of strength in a specific field or task.

Full-Time Job: A job typically involving 40 hours of work per week, usually eight hours a day, five days a week.

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Hume's Science of Man: Foundation and Purpose

David Hume defends the dependence of all sciences on the science of man, or the science of human nature. It is man who comprehends these sciences, which are his own creation, and it is man who must be studied. This Science of Man aims to guide society toward a world free of prejudice and religious bigotry, moving away from ancient and superstitious beliefs.

Critique of Superstition and Metaphysics

Hume, a profound rationalist, believes that rationalist superstition and metaphysics form the ideological basis of societal shortcomings. Religious intolerance, hypocrisy, and malice impede the progress, culture, and welfare of society. The Science of Man, Hume argues, intends to liberate humanity and dismantle... Continue reading "David Hume's Philosophy: Empiricism, Reason, and Human Nature" »

Augustine on Skepticism and Truth

Academic — in his Counter (or against the Academics) — Augustine criticizes scholars such as Carneades, Arcesilaus and the successors of Plato's Academy who held the position of philosophical skepticism. According to Augustine, that form of skepticism had stripped Platonism of its ascetic and religious character and upheld the claim that it is not really possible to know.

License, an Academic contemporary of Augustine, stated that to achieve happiness it is enough to seek the truth; there was no need to know it. Given this interpretation of Platonism, Augustine — responding to Academic skepticism — uses an argument similar to the one Plato employed against the Sophists: how can those who deny the possibility

The Political Philosophy of Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli, the foremost political thinker of the Renaissance, inaugurated modern political science by dealing with the practical affairs of the state. He was a hands-on politician, more interested in intervening in the governance of his state than in abstract theorizing. However, he knew that any goal-oriented action must be guided by theoretical principles.

These principles are outlined in his two most famous works, The Prince and Discourses on Livy, which serve as a guide for rulers. This approach posits that the ultimate goal of politics is to preserve the unity and identity of the community. The general rule is that every city tends toward the degeneration and corruption of its institutions... Continue reading "Machiavelli: Politics, Power, and Morality" »

Tema IV: El hombre, ser libre

Significados históricos de la libertad

Significados históricos de la libertad

The idea of freedom has acquired different meanings, even contradictory ones, throughout history. These are some of the meanings that freedom has had:

• a) Physical freedom: associated with economic or property freedom.
• b) Freedom as wisdom: If you do not know what to do, you probably are not free. One of the great dangers of freedom is ignorance. But do not exaggerate it: knowing does not make you totally free.
• c) Freedom as prior or superior to wisdom (Aristotle): deliberation — a rationalistic assessment. Judgment of the intelligence, judgment of the will. If they agree, the decision is immediate. In the case of a collision between these

Principles of Logic

Principle of Identity

An object is the same as itself: A is A → A = A.

Principle of Contradiction

Nothing can both be and not be in the same sense at the same time. Contradictory statements cannot both be true: Nothing can be A and not A → ¬(A ∧ ¬A).

Principle of Excluded Middle

Everything must either be or not be. Every statement must be either true or false: Everything is A or not A → A ∨ ¬A.

Logical Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Invalid Arguments

Consider the statement: "This statement is false." This proposition creates a paradox. If we assume it's true, then its content declares it false. Conversely, if we assume it's false, then its content implies it's true. This self-contradictory statement challenges basic logical... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Logic: Principles and Applications" »