Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

1. Think Like a Scientist

   When you start forming an opinion, resist the temptation to preach, prosecute, or politic. Treat your emerging view as a hunch or a hypothesis and test it with data.

2. Define Identity by Values, Not Opinions

   It’s easier to avoid getting stuck to your past beliefs if you don’t become attached to them as part of your present self-concept. See yourself as someone who values curiosity, learning, mental flexibility, and searching for knowledge. As you form opinions, keep a list of factors that would change your mind.

3. Seek Opposing Views

   An easy place to start is to follow people who make you think—even if you usually disagree with what they think.

4. Don't Confuse Confidence with Competence

   The better you think you are, the greater

The Biological Dimension of the Human Being

Non-Evolutionist Theories

Creationism

This theory asserts that the world and all living things were created by God from nothingness. This theory is the basis of many religious doctrines, not only of Christianity.

1. All living species were created separately by God from nothingness in the beginning of times. So they are not related nor derive ones from others.
2. God created mankind in his own image. So the human being plays a special role in the divine creation.

Fixism

Pseudo-scientific theory formulated by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) which states that species, both plant and animal, do not evolve, but remain unchanged in time. To explain the fact, as evidenced by the fossils, of the disappearance of certain species... Continue reading "Anthropology: Exploring the Biological, Cultural, and Philosophical Dimensions of Humanity" »

Causal Law

Scientific law that establishes a relationship between phenomena in such a way that if the phenomenon considered to be a cause takes place, the phenomenon that is considered to be an effect will also take place.

Cause

Event or action capable of producing or originating another different event, which is referred to as effect. Given that the cause of an event allows to explain a certain effect, the term is also used to refer to the reason for its taking place.

Chaos

Amorphous, undefined state that was supposed to occur before the cosmos existed. If the term “cosmos” refers to the ordered Universe, in Greek mythology the term “chaos” refers to the state of disarray that precedes the formation of the Universe. The term then evolved... Continue reading "Understanding Key Philosophical and Anthropological Concepts" »

Test2

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9 mind-according-for-without-part-not-into-little

17complexities-misled-politicians-incredibly

assumptions-impair-repeatedly-infinite

25mean that it is difficult:::to reach

to the exhibition is restricted to:::visitors who

for Stevie's prompt action:::in putting

is every possibility that taxes will rise

had left with no choice but than to accept

have got into the habit of

Test3

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9 if-so-where-with-or-nothing-back-in

17environmentally-recycling-undrinkable-consequences

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25 yourself be taken in by

waited for Sophie to finish her homework before

last thing I want is for

to have sustained a loss of

would have been better if I had

kept in contact with

Test4

1distance(c)-b-a-... Continue reading "Listening Science Lecturer: Test2, Test3, Test4" »

Constructivism in International Relations

One of the main assumptions of Western philosophy is the difference between nature and culture. The concept of nature is an important discovery of philosophy. Pre-philosophical societies did not make this distinction. Post-modernism doubts there is a radical distinction between nature and culture: they think this difference is not all that clear. International relations are accordingly not solely based on a natural reality (state of anarchy) but also on a social reality. Constructivism claims that tradition and culture result in the development of social phenomena. They believe international relations to be social and cultural. We do not obey any natural law but rather our own construction of ideas.

Main

Description of Human Faculties

Primitive Christianity made a huge effort to absorb the essential elements of Greek philosophy. A basic element is reason. According to the Platonic model, there are two different meanings or types of reason.

Universal Reason (LOGOS)

It governs the order of the world. According to Plato, this one lies in a superior world. Its supreme essences are the ideas: good, truth, and beauty.

Individual, Partial, and Limited Reason in Each Man

It allows captivating the superior order. However, the ascendance of the sensible world to the intelligible world is never produced completely. It is always done with difficulties.

Classical Notion of Human Freedom

It is the power, rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act, and so to... Continue reading "Understanding Human Faculties and Freedom in Christian Morality" »

Immune to Impresud with Inferior to
Indifferent to Jealous of Kind to keen on
Limited to Lucky at/with Mad at about Married to Nervous of/about Notorious for
Opposed to Optimistic about Patient with
Pessimistic about Pleased with Polite to
Popular with Presented with Proudof Punished for Puzzled by/about Qualified for
Ready for Related to Responsible for Sad about Sensitive to/about Serious about Sick of Similar to Shocked by Skillful at Slow at
Sorry for/about Successful at/in Suitable for Sure of/about Superior to Surprised at/by
Suspicious of Sympathetic with Talented at
Terrible at Terrified of Tired of Thankful to/for Typical of Upset about Used to. Nouns + prep ON Debate on Information on Hold on
Agreement on Ban on Congratulations on
Decision... Continue reading "Essential English Prepositions List" »

Understanding Common and Preferred Stock

Par Value Explained

Par Value: The stated value on a stock certificate.

• An accounting value, not market value.
• Represents the dedicated capital of a corporation, calculated as the total par value (number of shares * par value of each share).

Authorized vs. Issued Common Stock

• The articles of incorporation must state the number of shares of common stock the corporation is authorized to issue.
• The board of directors, after a vote of the shareholders, may amend the articles of incorporation to increase the number of shares.
• Authorizing a large number of shares may concern investors about dilution because authorized shares can be issued later with the approval of the board of directors but without a vote of the

Dividends

• Unless a dividend is declared by the board of directors of a corporation, it is not a liability of the corporation (A corporation cannot default on an undeclared dividend)
• The payment of dividends by the corporation is not a business expense. (Therefore, they are not tax-deductible)
• Dividends received by individual shareholders are, for the most part, considered ordinary income by the IRS and are fully taxable (There is an intra-corporate dividend exclusion)

Preferred Stock

Preferred stock represents equity of a corporation, but is different from common stock because it has preference over common in the payments of dividends and in the assets of the corporation in the event of bankruptcy. They have a stated liquidating value (usually $... Continue reading "Understanding Dividends, Preferred Stock, Debt, and Equity in Corporate Finance" »

Alternative Models of Behavior

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Money Matters

• Reductionist and simplistic model: “Everything and everyone has a price” – the “economic model” is richer and more subtle than this.
• The only component of a job is monetary compensation.
• Therefore, anyone can get anybody to do anything for sufficiently high compensation; the economic model cannot guarantee that! (Easy job life and poor results)

Happy-Is-Productive

• Employee satisfaction and happiness is not a means in itself but rather instrumental to firms’ goals.
• It is the view of managers who believe that “happy employees are more productive”.
• In this way of thinking, employees exert higher effort and dedication in the job not when they are better paid, but when they feel better treated.