Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Socrates: Reason, Morality, and Truth

Socrates defended intellectualism, asserting that reason and morality are central to human actions. He believed that evil actions stem from ignorance, as no one knowingly chooses to do wrong; if one truly understands what is good, they will act accordingly. There is also a proposal that our actions are based on the consequences of that behavior, leading us to reflect and then decide which course to embrace. Socrates proposed a method to find the truth within ourselves. He promoted dialogue, understood as a reasoned conversation, as the best way to access truth.

Epicurus: The Pursuit of Tranquil Pleasure

Epicurus believed that pleasure was the ultimate good and should take precedence in our lives. His ethics... Continue reading "Philosophical Ethics: Key Thinkers and Theories" »

Aristotle's Philosophy

Aristotle's entire philosophy is permeated by a clear sense of teleology, in that the realization of each being's proper end is its own good. Knowing the truth is the real purpose of human beings, and it is their ultimate goal. Humans, in addition to knowing, living, and knowledge, give you a good life that makes you happy and is more specific to humans. Knowing the truth is the philosopher's task, who will therefore be the happiest of human beings. The philosopher is concerned with the principles and causes that are more universal and unchanging. Therefore, their research should cover both "being"—"being" as "being"—as well as movement, change, and transformation.

Research into Aristotelian principles about "being"... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Understanding Being and Human Nature" »

Skepticism in Philosophy

Introduction to Skepticism

• Skepticism posits that no knowledge is possible.
• It describes a term relationship: one is skeptical about something.
• In epistemology, skepticism denies the possibility of knowing.
• It is ambivalent and anti-philosophical because philosophy is an attempt to learn.
• Philosophy, because it always doubts and rejects unsafe assumptions, has been important in forcing thinkers not to fall into complacency.

Types of Skepticism

• Partial Skepticism: Doubts the possibility of knowing a certain aspect, similar to agnosticism (e.g., it's not possible to know God or beyond the empirical).
  • Difference from Atheism: An atheist claims to know that God does not exist.
• Total Skepticism: Affects all knowledge, implying one

The Philosophical Pursuit of Happiness

Despite single parenthood, when parents return to mate, they live in one pluriparental family. The family has changed but not disappeared.

Aristotle's View: Happiness as the Final Good

The concept of The Good as Happiness, championed by the philosopher Aristotle, posits that happiness is the main objective of all existence. It is the last good that may exist, which is desirable in itself, and always chosen for its own sake and never for the sake of something else. Happiness is self-sufficient because the final good must be sufficient in itself. Happiness consists in the intelligence of the individual acting according to virtue; it is decided and thought out.

External Requirements for Contemplation

Aristotle... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy of Happiness: Defining the Final Good" »

Philosophy: The Love of Wisdom

The reflection method that reflects the articulation of knowledge and the limits of existence and modes of being is called philosophy. The term, of Greek origin, is composed of two words: philos (love) and sophia (thought, wisdom, knowledge). Therefore, philosophy is the love of knowledge.

The philosopher, in turn, is an individual seeking knowledge for knowledge itself, without a pragmatic view. They are moved by curiosity and inquire about the ultimate foundations of reality. Beyond the development of philosophy as a discipline, the act of philosophizing is intrinsic to the human condition. It is not just concrete knowledge, but a natural attitude of humans in relation to the universe and their own being.

Like... Continue reading "Philosophy and Intelligence: Understanding Human Existence" »

Machiavelli: Life and Political Philosophy

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence in 1469 into a noble family and received a good education. He actively participated in political life until the age of 44, dedicating his time to political theory. His most seminal work is The Prince. Machiavelli was primarily interested in presenting the mechanics of government, divorced from moral questions, and in formulating the means by which political power can be established and maintained. He argued that if a state's primary goal is to ensure its safety and welfare, the ruler is justified in using immoral means to establish and preserve power. Machiavelli's thinking is dominated by political realism: he sought to analyze the pure political act, devoid... Continue reading "Machiavelli: Politics, Power, and The Prince" »

Myth vs. Logos: The Dawn of Reason

Myth: A fantastical story, rich in symbols and metaphors, passed down through generations. Myths explain the world's origin and address questions about the afterlife, featuring gods, heroes, and characters who act arbitrarily within a natural setting. They reveal esoteric truths that require interpretation.

Logos: Representing word, argument, and reason, logos signifies language grounded in reason and explanation. This marked the beginning of rational thought, with philosophy as its heir.

Early Theories of Existence

Fixism: This theory posits that species arose from a single act of creation at a specific time and remain unchanged. Aristotle adhered to this view.

Creationism: Creationists argue for divine intervention... Continue reading "Human Evolution and the Rise of Philosophical Thought" »

Plato's Ideal State and the Philosopher Ruler

Motivation: Discontent in Athens

Plato believed that the philosopher is the only one capable of governing an ideal state justly. His philosophy emerged in reaction to the philosophical theories and discontent with the political situation of his time. In 5th century BC Athens, neither the democracy nor the rule of the Thirty Tyrants had been able to govern justly. Plato rejected democracy, which promoted the equality of citizens without regard for knowledge or virtue. He also criticized it because the democracy led by Pericles devolved into the power of a few poorly educated sophists, and the system committed injustices, such as condemning Socrates to death.

The Role of Knowledge and Ideas

Plato argued... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice, Society, and Philosopher Rulers" »

The scientific community supports the general consensus that the origin of life occurred approximately 3,600 million years ago (Ma). Science accepts that all living beings share the same biochemical organization and the same genetic code.

Foundational Principles of Life and Evolution

• All living beings have a common origin.
• The development of life has been continuous, confirming that evolution is a biological fact, not merely a hypothesis.
• Homo sapiens originated from a primate mammal, from which our species has evolved.

Defining Evolution

Evolution is defined as the process by which individuals of a species undergo qualitative changes that lead to the species transforming from more primitive life forms into more organized ones. This process relies... Continue reading "The Scientific Basis of Life's Evolution and Origin" »

Rousseau: Social Contract, Book I, Chapter III

1. Rousseau on Might and Right

   According to Rousseau, the use of force always seeks the appearance of right to justify itself. However, if force itself creates right, then the duty to obey such force exists only as long as the force prevails. If a stronger force replaces the first, the right also shifts. Therefore, one can disobey with impunity and legitimacy when no longer compelled by force.

2. Rousseau's View on Hobbes's Theory of Power

   Rousseau would likely disagree with Hobbes's theory. Hobbes holds a pessimistic view of human nature, contrary to Rousseau. This is shown in Hobbes's statement: "if you have not established a power or not big enough for our security, each will rely only, and may lawfully,