Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Ethical Theories and Moral Foundations

According to the motives that drive human beings to act, two fundamental types of ethical theory have developed: teleological and deontological.

Ethical Theory Fundamentals

Teleological Ethics

• State that action should produce a specific end.
• Aim to resolve conflicts between interests and standards.
• Moral action should pursue happiness and justice.

Deontological Ethics

• Do not share the vision of humanity as a seeker of happiness.
• What defines a human being and sets them apart is their legislative autonomy.
• Action must be based on the duty imposed by reason.

Bases of Morality: Types of Moral Norms

Moral norms are categorized by their origin:

External Foundation

• The origin of the rules lies in something external

Specific Characteristics of Modern Science

Experimentation

Galileo Galilei introduced a significant shift in the scientific method by emphasizing the crucial role of observation and experimentation. Recognizing that certain hypotheses could not be observed in everyday life, he advocated for creating controlled "ideal situations" through experiments to confirm or refute them.

Mathematization

Galileo firmly believed that nature operates according to regularities that can be expressed using mathematical functions. This emphasis on mathematization became a cornerstone of modern science, contrasting with earlier approaches to physics. By quantifying reality, scientists could avoid the subjectivity and ambiguity inherent in everyday language.

Scientific

Freedom of Ideology (Art. 16.1) guarantees freedom of religion and individual beliefs. Ownership of these beliefs resides with individuals and communities. This encompasses:

• The state's inability to impose a religion.
• The ability to express one's own ideas, whether written or oral.
• Protection of individuals' beliefs.

Freedom of Expression vs. Right to Information

We distinguish between freedom of expression, which is more subjective and deals with ideas and opinions, and the right to information, which concerns data, facts, and behaviors and is more objective. Both are inherent to the individual and connected to human dignity, autonomy, and freedom.

These rights extend beyond the individual sphere to legal, social, and political groups. Their purpose... Continue reading "Fundamental Rights: Freedom of Expression and More" »

Understanding Empiricism, Causality, and Perception

2. Identified with the new licenses, empiricism maintains that experience is the basis of all knowledge. It rejects any conclusion not derived from experience and repudiates hypothetical thought. Locke, the creator of psychological empiricism, opposed innate ideas.

3. Most sciences have a link with human nature. Logic concerns knowledge and its foundation. Politics deals with humans living in society, depending on each other. Morality concerns our feelings, and criticism concerns taste. This text attempts to bring together a system of science.

4. This paper discusses the theory of knowledge, including both inductive and deductive reasoning. Deductive thinking demonstrates that conclusions are... Continue reading "Understanding Empiricism, Causality, and Perception: A Humean Analysis" »

Metaphysical Topics include knowledge concerning truth, knowledge, the soul, God, good, evil, freedom, reality, death, the meaning of life, and so on. Metaphysics differs from the natural sciences by establishing not only the subjects but also the methods. Science seeks to be precise and express itself in the clearest possible language, often using mathematics. The strength of scientific evidence is imposed on other competent minds. Philosophy, however, may not agree on themes, language, method, or results. Science is what is being sought.

When knowledge becomes autonomous, it becomes independent of philosophy. Philosophy and metaphysics are often considered borderlands, the most troubled fields of knowledge.

Progress in philosophical knowledge... Continue reading "Metaphysical Knowledge: Understanding Reality, Knowledge, and Ethics" »

Nietzsche's Philosophical Stages

The Apollonian and Dionysian: First Stage

Friedrich Nietzsche's 1872 work, The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music, delves into the reality of aesthetic categories. It offers a profound analysis of Greek tragedy, which he viewed as encompassing all of Western culture. Nietzsche distinguishes between a scientific understanding of reality and a tragic knowledge, which, according to him, represents the very best of human life, as it manifests the irrational aspect neglected by science.

In tragedies predating Euripides, two contrasting elements are always present, expressing the essence of human life: namely, the Apollonian and the Dionysian. These concepts are defined as follows:

• Apollo represents the ideal of

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is constituted as a form of knowledge that, through the use of reason, questions the totality of things, seeking their root causes and addressing the major issues of concern to humans.

Characteristics of Philosophy

Philosophy is a wonder about all of reality; its field of study is thus the most universal. Philosophy questions all that human beings are capable of thinking and is interested in understanding the entire human experience. This universality is the major difference compared to the sciences.

Philosophy is radical in that it aims to reach the ultimate explanatory principles of reality—the meaning, the 'why,' and not only the 'how.'

It is a rational knowledge, born with the aim of understanding and interpreting... Continue reading "Defining Philosophy: Characteristics, Functions, and Kant's Core Questions" »

Employee Dismissal Procedures

Dismissal Process and Severance

When an employee is dismissed, specific procedures must be followed to ensure legal compliance and fairness. Key aspects include:

• Written Notice: The employee must receive a written notice clearly specifying the facts and reasons for dismissal.
• Severance Pay: An allowance of 20 days' salary for each year of seniority in the company, with a maximum cap equivalent to 12 months' salary.
• Notice Period: Immediate dismissal is generally not permitted. A prior notice period of 30 days must be given. During this 30-day period, the employee is entitled to a leave of absence for six hours per week to seek new employment. The company may also choose to compensate the employee financially in lieu

Procedure for Treaty Termination, Suspension, and Annulment

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties establishes a procedure for the invalidity, termination, and suspension of treaties, regulated by Articles 65 and 66. This procedure is as follows:

• The party claiming suspension, termination, or invalidity must notify the other parties, stating their claim regarding the treaty and the reasons for it.
• If no party raises objections within three months, the notifying party may adopt the proposed measure.
• However, if any other party objects within this three-month period, the parties must seek a peaceful solution.
• If a peaceful solution cannot be found within 12 months of the objection, the dispute will be subject to a conciliation procedure, as

Fundamental Notions of Tax Law

Humans have multiple needs, both individual and collective. The logical framework for the current organization of social groups is the state.

The state requires funding to meet the needs of its people and has two primary options:

1. To borrow, either domestically or internationally.
2. To raise resources through taxes.

The Core Conflict in Taxation

A fundamental conflict arises between the state's need to mobilize resources and the perspective of individuals, who feel that taxes take away their money.

The Search for Equilibrium

The essence of tax law is the search for an equilibrium between the state and individuals. This involves answering three fundamental questions:

• What to tax? Before creating a tax, it is necessary to determine