Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Christianity's Influence

With Christianity came new ways of thinking.

Manichaeism

Manichaeism is a religious doctrine of salvation based on the philosophical idea that the world is divided into good and evil, light and dark, spirit and matter.

Augustine on Reason and Faith

Both reason and faith can lead to God; there is no contradiction between them. "Believe to understand, understand to believe."

Creation: Augustine vs. Greeks

St. Augustine held that God created the world out of nothing, while the Greeks believed the world has existed forever.

Augustine's View on Evil

Evil is the absence of God, something that is not, resulting from human disobedience to the will of God.

Rebirth

Rebirth was a cultural movement that originated in Italy in the late fourteenth... Continue reading "Christianity's Impact in the Middle Ages & Key Philosophies" »

Historical Context

René Descartes' life unfolded primarily in the first part of the 17th century. The 16th century witnessed the fragmentation of religious unity in Europe due to the Protestant Reformation, challenging the long-held ideal of a united Europe under the Christian faith.

Socio-politically, France, Holland, and England emerged as economic centers. Absolute monarchy spread across Europe. The Spanish bourgeoisie faced economic ruin, while nobility and clergy remained the primary landowners. England experienced two revolutions and a civil war. Europe engaged in colonial ventures driven by mercantilist principles. The growth of trade empowered the bourgeoisie, leading to the breakdown of the Ancien Régime. This era marked the height... Continue reading "Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Comparison to Aristotle" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Thought

The text that we have to discuss is an excerpt from Twilight of the Idols, a work in which Nietzsche declares war on the entire tradition of Western thought: philosophers, priests, moralists, and scientists—essentially, all who have defended the morality of slaves and promoted a lifestyle that denies metaphysical life and instincts. In short, he critiques those who have denied the Dionysian.

Philosophy of Reason

As stated in the philosophy of reason, this is a character epistemic text that summarizes Nietzsche's critique of metaphysics and vital morality. Encased in the nineteenth century, Nietzsche's thought is a response to the crisis of Enlightenment reason. The philosophy of the second half of the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Western Thought and Morality" »

Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

With the intention of overcoming the division and opposition between realism and idealism in knowledge, both phenomenology and hermeneutics emerged. The core theme of phenomenology is "going to the things themselves," aiming to understand what things are in their pure and simple presence to consciousness, the subject.

While attempting to mediate between idealism and realism, phenomenology prioritizes consciousness, as consciousness apprehends things themselves (similar to idealism). However, it also acknowledges that objects do not conform to the subject (as in realism). To achieve objectivity, it is necessary to shed all prejudices, theories, and interpretations through a process of reflection called "reduction,... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on Truth and Reality" »

Analysis

1. The Apollonian and Dionysian

Nietzsche aims to create a philosophy capable of understanding the reality of human life. Our author sees life as a process in constant realization. This aims to understand the human species and therefore needs to analyze the human reality in all its manifestations. He is critical of earlier philosophers because they forget that man is a being in permanent construction. Nietzsche maintains the idea that life is cruel and a blind irrationality. The Greek god Dionysus represents life. Art gives us the strength to accept life as it is. Tragic art represents the full affirmation of life. The secret of the Greek world is in the Dionysian spirit.

To explain the reality of life, Nietzsche draws on the Greek gods... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Analysis: Apollonian & Dionysian" »

Principle of Non-Retroactivity of Law

The principle of non-retroactivity of law means that a law can only apply to the future and will never have a retroactive effect. However, there are laws that apply retroactively. For example, laws that restrict themselves to declaring the meaning of other laws shall be incorporated into them but will not, in any way, affect the effects of judgments enforceable in the intermediate time.

Principle of Res Judicata

Res judicata is the effect produced by certain court decisions that are immovable, i.e., they cannot be discussed again. The principle of res judicata requires compliance with what was fixed in the sentence and also prevents double jeopardy by prohibiting the repetition of what has already been decided.... Continue reading "Key Legal Principles: Non-Retroactivity, Res Judicata, Prescription, Common Good" »

The Essence of Ideas

In each general term, "cat" in this case, there is an idea, an essence that defines it as one thing and distinguishes it from others. For Plato, the idea of a cat has content; it is not just a word. We associate that word with an idea, and an idea is a term that exists in our mind, a way to identify cats. For Plato, the cat as an idea is reality; the idea is real because it does not change. If something is real, it must remain constant. For Plato, ideas are universal; we all understand the same meaning for our ideas. All individuals share a common idea. Ideas are paramount because they do not change. He advocates for the immutability of ideas because they are the essences of what we can perceive and learn through the senses.... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ideas, Morality, Society, and Education" »

Many individuals face challenges meeting basic needs in their lives. Social integration work aims to help individuals improve their quality of life, fostering autonomy and independence.

Developing Essential Life Skills

We must help them acquire social skills such as:

• Working effectively in groups
• Making and maintaining friendships
• Accepting rules, and more.

Also, it is crucial to help them develop strong communication skills. This includes expressing desires, understanding instructions from someone explaining something, and using gestures consistently to indicate agreement or disagreement.

Another important task is to assist in developing work-related skills. This involves areas like managing money, following simple instructions (e.g., operating equipment)... Continue reading "Social Integration Work: Fostering Autonomy and Independence" »

Jean Jacques Rousseau

1. Historical Context

It occurs in eighteenth century France, with the confrontation between the bourgeoisie and nobility that will lead to the French Revolution. Picture emerges as a movement to liberation and human happiness as a liberation movement to human happiness and progress through reason.

The reason is the instrument that enables human societies to adapt to the natural laws thus opening the field for searching and researching new social and cultural laws. The philosophy of research into new social and cultural laws. Rousseau's philosophy is that social order must be in accordance with the laws of nature.

2. Framework Sociocultural

Will come determined, in the field of arts and literature, the emergence of big names... Continue reading "Jean Jacques Rousseau: Enlightenment Philosopher and Social Reformer" »

Personal Rating of Mill's Utilitarianism

To develop the current philosophy of Utilitarianism, Mill can be used as a reference. The sentence, "It is better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied," shows that Mill prefers to choose intellectual pleasures over sensual ones. This choice is because Mill establishes a hierarchy of pleasures. First, we have sensible pleasures, which are based on satisfaction, in contrast to intellectual pleasures, which are based on happiness.

In making this assertion, Mill believes the state also plays an important role. We start from the basis that the state must strengthen the happiness of the individual through external sanctions. External sanctions can be physical and psychological. Internal sanctions... Continue reading "John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism: Happiness and Pleasure" »